INTRODUCTION

• United Nations. 1995. Population and Development, vol. 1: Programme of Action adopted at the International Conference on Population and Development: Cairo: 5-13 September 1994, para. 9.14. New York: Department of Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis, United Nations.
  
  
• UN Millennium Project. 2005. Investing in Development: A Practical Plan to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals, p. xix. Report to the UN Secretary-General. London and Sterling, Virginia: Earthscan.
  
  
• See: UN-Habitat. 2006. State of the World’s Cities 2006/7: The Millennium Development Goals and Urban Sustainability.London: Earthscan. Moreover, Worldwatch’s latest annual Report provides a valuable portrayal of major urban problems as well as a number of promising approaches. (See: Worldwatch Institute. 2007. State of the World 2007: Our Urban Future. New York and London: W. W. Norton and Company.)

• Excerpt courtesy of: Anderson Literary Management, Inc. 13 November 2006. “The Megacity,” copyright 2006 © by George Packer. The New Yorker 82(37): 64.



• UNFPA. 1996. The State of World Population 1996: Changing Places: Population, Development and the Urban Future, p. 1. New York: UNFPA.



• This crossover date is based on the latest UN estimate. Unless otherwise mentioned, all data referring to the analyses of urbanization trends provided in this Report are based on: United Nations. 2006. World Urbanization Prospects: The 2005 Revision. New York: Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations.



• United Nations. 1995.
  Population and Development, vol. 1: Programme of Action adopted at the International Conference on Population and Development: Cairo: 5-13 September 1994, Section 9.1. New York: Department of Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis, United Nations.



• UN Millennium Project. 2005. A Home in the City. Task Force on Improving the Lives of Slum Dwellers. London and Sterling, Virginia: Earthscan.



• The characteristics and limitations of the United Nations database have been amply discussed in the literature. See, for instance: Montgomery, M. R., et al., Panel on Urban Dynamics, National Research Council (eds.). 2003. Cities Transformed: Demographic Change and Its Implications in the Developing World, pp. 128-153. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press; and Satterthwaite, D. 2005. The Scale of Urban Change Worldwide 1950-2000 and Its Underpinnings. Human Settlements Discussion Paper. No. Urban01. London: International Institute for Environment and Development.



• Satterthwaite, D. 2006. Outside the Large Cities: The Demographic Importance of Small Urban Centres and Large Villages in Africa, Asia and Latin America, p. 1. Human Settlements Discussion Paper. No. Urban03. London: International Institute for Environment and Development.



• Cohen, B. 2006. “Urbanization in Developing Countries: Current Trends, Future Projections, and Key Challenges for Sustainability.” Technology in Society 28(1-2): 63-80.



• The trends discussed herein are based on the official United Nations estimates and projections. (See: United Nations 2006.) It is important to emphasize that these projections are not predictions. The broad trends presented in this section are based on solid evidence, but their actual levels may vary. Many factors can change the trajectory of urban growth over time. Reviews of projections from recent decades show that they have tended to overstate urban growth, especially in larger cities. Most policymakers would welcome a reduction in the rate of future urban growth. The mechanics of such a potential decline are discussed in Chapter 6.



• Satterthwaite 2005.



• “In most cases, high growth rates are an indicator of success rather than failure and most of the world’s largest cities are located in countries with the world’s largest economies.” — Cohen 2006, p. 69.



• On the other hand, even a modest rate of growth in a large city can mean a large absolute increase in population. That is, a 2 per cent annual increase in the population of Mumbai will mean a much larger increment of urbanites than a 10 per cent annual increase in a smaller city.



• “We cannot recall a case in which a small city was the focus of an editorial lamenting rapid urban growth or the lack of public services. Nevertheless, the combined size of such cities makes them very significant presences in developing countries.” — Montgomery, M. R., et al., Panel on Urban Dynamics, National Research Council (eds.) 2003, p. 15.



• UNCHS (Habitat). 2000. Women and Urban Governance, p. 3. Policy Dialogue Series. No. 1. Nairobi: UNCHS (Habitat).



• “Globalization has allowed individual cities to break away from the fate of their national economies. Increasingly success or failure depends on the ability of municipal governments to capitalize on the assets of the local environment and to provide the modern infrastructure, enabling environment, and low-wage, flexible workforce demanded by modern businesses.” — Cohen, B. 2004. “Urban Growth in Developing Countries: A Review of Current Trends and a Caution Regarding Existing Forecasts,” p. 37. World Development 32(1): 23-51.



• The diseconomies of agglom­eration, population density, environmental pollution, labour problems and the economic extension of the dominant centre can reduce the advantages of large cities. Advances in telecommunications, transportation and production technologies from globalization can favour de-concentration away from central cities. Industries that require a large workforce can decline, thereby eroding a main economic reason for concentration, that is, to minimize the costs of transport, knowledge, training and information.



• UNRISD. 2005. Gender Equality: Striving for Justice in an Unequal World, p. 193. Geneva: UNRISD.



• This section is based on: Rodriguez, J., and G. Martine. 2006. “Urbanization in Latin America: Experiences and Lessons Learned.” Draft paper prepared for this Report.



• This section is based on: ESCWA Social Development Division. 2007. “Urbanization in the Western Asia Region.” Draft paper prepared for this Report.



• Ibid. Some countries, such as Egypt, Jordan and the Syrian Arab Republic, for example, are beginning to take positive steps in aiding informal settlements.



• This discussion is based on: White, M. J., B. U. Mberu, and M. Collinson. 2006. “African Migration and Urbanization: Recent Trends and Implications.” Draft paper prepared for this Report.



• White, M. J., and D. P. Lindstrom. 2005. “Internal Migration.” Ch. 11 in: Handbook of Population, edited by D. Poston and M. Micklin. 2006. Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research Series. New York: Springer.



• This discussion is drawn in large part from: Chandrasekhar, S. 2006. “Urban Growth Patterns and Its Implications for Future Economic, Social, Demographic and Environmental Scenarios in India.” Draft paper prepared for this Report.



• Government of India. n.d. National Rural Employment Guarantee Act: 2005. New Delhi: Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India. Website: http://nrega.nic.in/, accessed


17 January 2006.


• This section is based on: Bai, X. 2006. “Urban Transition in China: Trends, Consequences, and Policy Implications.” Draft paper prepared for this Report.



• Chen, N., P. Valente, and H. Zlotnik. 1998. “What Do We Know about Recent Trends in Urbanization?” Pp. 59-88 in: Migration, Urbanization, and Development: New Directions and Issues, edited by R. E. Bilsborrow. 1998. New York: UNFPA.



• Sivaramakrishnan, K. C., Amitabh Kundu, and B. N. Singh. 2005. Handbook of Urbanization in India: An Analysis of Trends and Processes, Table 3.4. New Delhi and New York: Oxford University Press.



• Rodriguez and Martine 2006.



• In China, uncommonly strong bureaucratic controls over fertility have kept natural increase at low levels over several decades. Meanwhile, similarly strong restrictions on rural-urban migration kept urbanization levels low until the late 1970s. Loosening of migration restraints have resulted in massive movements to cities in the face of continued low rates of natural increase.



• Few governments have made direct reference to this connection between urban growth and natural increase and to the need for greater attention to reproductive health. Policymakers generally allude only to unwanted rural-urban migration.

• United Nations. 2006. Implementation of the Outcome of the United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II) and Strengthening of the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat): Report of the Secretary General (A/61/262), para. 8. New York: United Nations.



• United Nations. 1995. Population and Development, vol. 1: Programme of Action adopted at the International Conference on Population and Development: Cairo: 5-13 September 1994, para. 9.14. New York: Department of Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis, United Nations.



• This chapter benefits in many ways from a valuable contribution made to this Report by UN-Habitat (See: Bazoglu, N., and Mboup, G. 2007. “Shelter and Urban Poverty: Nature and Scope.” Draft paper prepared for this Report.).



• Kessides, C. 2006. The Urban Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa: Implications for Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction. Africa Region Working Paper Series. No. 97. Washington, D. C.: Cities Alliance.



• Champion, T., and G. Hugo. 2004. “Introduction: Moving Beyond the Urban-Rural Dichotomy.” Ch. 1 in: New Forms of Urbanization: Beyond the Urban-Rural Dichotomy, edited by T. Champion and G. Hugo. Aldershot, United Kingdom: Ashgate; Njoh, A. J. 2003. “Urbanization and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Cities 20(3): 167-174; and UN-Habitat. 1996. An Urbanizing World: Global Report on Human Settlements 1996 (HS/397/96A). Oxford: Oxford University Press.



• Figures on urban poverty are imprecise and often under-estimated because many aspects of poverty are simply not measured. Surveys either fail to consider the specificity of urban conditions (for instance, the inability to grow or forage for food, the higher monetary cost of non-food needs, the higher incidence of homelessness, harassment, eviction or arrest in their “illegal” homes or livelihoods), or present incomplete information (for instance, by not measuring the adequacy of sanitation facilities). Official UN statistics suggest that, in 2005, there were some 998 million people living in “slums” in the world. See: UN-Habitat. 2006a. State of the World’s Cities 2006/7: The Millennium Development Goals and Urban Sustainability, p. 16. London: Earthscan.



• Satterthwaite, D. 2004. The Under-estimation of Urban Poverty in Low- and Middle-Income Nations. IIED Working Paper on Poverty Reduction in Urban Areas. No. 14. London: International Institute for Environment and Development.



• UNCHS (Habitat). 2001. State of the World’s Cities 2001. Nairobi: UNCHS (Habitat).



• UN-Habitat 2006a.



• UNDP. 2006a. Making Progress on Environmental Sustainability: Lessons and Recommendations from a Review of Over 150 MDG Country Experiences, pp. 47 and 50. New York: UNDP.



• UN Millennium Project. 2005a. Investing in Development: A Practical Plan to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals, p. xix. Report to the UN Secretary-General. London and Sterling, Virginia: Earthscan



• Montgomery, M. 2005. “The Place of the Urban Poor in the Cairo Programme of Action and the Millennium Development Goals,” p. XXIV-5. Ch. 24 in: United Nations Seminar on the Relevance of Population Aspects for the Achievement of the Millennium Development Goals: New York: 17-19 November 2004 (ESA/P/WP.192), by the United Nations. 2005a. New York: Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations.



• See: McGranahan, G., et al. 2001. The Citizens at Risk: From Urban Sanitation to Sustainable Cities. London: Earthscan.



• Bartone, C. R. 2001. “Urban Environmental Management and the Poor.” Environmental Strategy Background Paper, Urban Development, Infrastructure Group. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Website: http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/lac/envstrategy/ar/cover.nsf/0/40451d0d0edfa2
  4f85256a0e005aa2e1 /$FILE/ENV-Urban-Jan01.doc, last accessed 29 November 2006.



• UNDP. 2006b. Human Development Report 2006: Beyond Scarcity: Power, Poverty and the Global Water Crisis. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.



• Mboup, G. 2004. “Cost of Water by Welfare Groups in Addis Ababa: Indicators for Accessibility, Affordability and Non-discrimination.” Paper presented at the Right to Water and Indicators Workshop, Heinrich Boell Foundation, Berlin, Germany, 25-26 October 2004; UN-Habitat. 2004. “The Preliminary Report of the Urban Inequities Survey, Addis Ababa.” Nairobi: UN-Habitat; and UN-Habitat 2006a.



• African Population and Health Research Center, Inc. 2002. Population and Health Dynamics in Nairobi’s Informal Settlements. Nairobi: African Population and Health Research Center, Inc.



• Montgomery, M. R., et al., Panel on Urban Dynamics, National Research Council (eds.). 2003. Cities Transformed: Demographic Change and Its Implications in the Developing World, p. 82. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.



• UN-Habitat 2004. 



• Thompson, J., et al. 2000. “Waiting at the Tap: Changes in Urban Water Use in East Africa over Three Decades.” Environment and Urbanization 12(2): 37-52 Cited in: Kessides 2006, p. 18.



• United Nations 1995, Objective 3.16.



• UNDP. 2003. Human Development Report 2003: Millennium Development Goals: A Compact among Nations to End Human Poverty, p. 85.  New York: Oxford University Press.



• Basu, A. 2002. “Why does Education Lead to Lower Fertility: A Critical Review of Some of the Possibilities. World Development 30(10): 1779-1790.



• UN-Habitat. 2007. Urban Indicators Database. Nairobi: UN-Habitat.



• UN-Habitat 2006a.



• Heintz, J. 2006. “Globalization, Economic Policy and Employment: Poverty and Gender Implications,” p. 15. Employment Strategy Papers. No. 2006/3. Geneva: ILO.



• UNRISD. 2005. Gender Equality: Striving for Justice in an Unequal World, p. 53. Geneva: UNRISD.



• Kabeer, N., and S. Mahmud. 2004. “Globalization, Gender, and Poverty: Bangladeshi Women Workers in Export and Local Markets.” Journal of International Development 16(1): 93-109; Benería, L. 2003. Gender, Development and Globalization: Economics as if All People Mattered. London: Routledge; Elson, D. 1996. “Appraising Recent Developments in the World Market for Nimble Fingers.” Pp. 35-55 in: Confronting State, Capital, and Patriarchy: Women Organizing in the Process of Industrialization, edited by A. Chhachhi and R. Pittin. 1996. New York: St. Martin’s Press; and Elson, D., and R. Pearson. 1981. “Nimble Fingers make Cheap Workers: An Analysis of Women’s Employment in Third World Export Manufacturing.” Feminist Review 7: 87-107. All cited in: Heintz 2006, p. 45.



• Chen, M., et al. 2005. Progress of the World’s Women 2005: Women, Work and Poverty. New York: UNIFEM; Carr, M., M. A. Chen, and J. Tate. 2000. “Globalization and Home-Based Workers.” Feminist Economics 6(3): 123-42; and Chen, M., J. Sebstad, and L. O’Connell. 1999. “Counting the Invisible Workforce: The Case of Homebased Workers.” World Development 27(3): 603-610. All cited in: Heintz 2006, p. 54.



• AFL-CIO. n.d. “Women in the Global Economy.” Washington, D.C.: AFL-CIO. Website: www.aflcio.org/issues/jobseconomy/globaleconomy/women/, accessed 16 February 2007.



• UN-Habitat 2006a, p. 125.



• Ibid., p. 9.



• Heintz 2006, p. 1.



• Ibid., p. 11.



• International Center for Research on Women. May 2006. “Reducing Women’s and Girls’ Vulnerability to HIV/AIDS by Strengthening their Property and Inheritance Rights.” ICRW Information Bulletin. Washington, D.C.: International Center for Research on Women. (The International Center for Research on Women [ICRW], in partnership with the Global Coalition on Women and AIDS [GCWA/UNAIDS] and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO], is implementing the Reducing Women’s and Girls’ Vulnerability to HIV/AIDS by Strengthening their Property and Inheritance Rights grants programme.)



• International Center for Research on Women. June 2004. “To Have and To Hold: Women’s Property and Inheritance Rights in the Context of HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa.” ICRW Information Bulletin. Washington, D.C.: International Center for Research on Women. 



• Michaud, A. 2002. “How Gender-sensitive is Your City?” in Habitat Debate 8(4): 9-10.



• See: Inter-Parliamentary Union. 2007. “Women in National Parliaments: Situation as of 31 January 2007.”  Geneva: Inter-Parliamentary Union. Website: http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm, accessed 12 February 2007.



• United Cities and Local Governments. 2005. “Local Government Statement to Beijing+10: Women in Local Decision Making: Leading Global Change.” Barcelona, Spain: United Cities and Local Governments. Website: http://www.cities-localgovernments.org/uclg/index.asp, accessed 21 February 2007.



• Chen, et al. 2005.



• WHO. 2005. “What Evidence is there about the Effects of Health Care Reforms on Gender Equity, Particularly in Health,” p. 10. Health Evidence Network Report. Copenhagen:  Regional Office for Europe, WHO.



• See: UNFPA and the Population Reference Bureau. 2005. Country Profiles for Population and Reproductive Health: Policy Developments and Indicators 2005, p. 10. New York and Washington, D.C.: UNFPA and the Population Reference Bureau.



• Montgomery, M. R., et al., Panel on Urban Dynamics, National Research Council (eds.) 2003, p. 82.



• Montgomery, M. 2004. “The Place of the Urban Poor in the Cairo Programme of Action and the Millennium Development Goals,” p. 7. Paper presented at the Seminar on the Relevance of Population Aspects for the Achievement of the Millennium Development Goals, New York, 17–19 November 2004, Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations.



• Montgomery, M. R., et al., Panel on Urban Dynamics, National Research Council (eds.) 2003, p. 82.



• Montgomery 2004, p. 1.



• Smaoun, S. 2005. “Even in the Best of Times, Women Are Constantly in Danger.” Habitat Debate 11(1): 7.



• UNFPA. 2006. “Women’s Economic Empowerment: Meeting the Needs of Impoverished Women,” p. 17. Workshop Report. New York: UNFPA.



• Kishor, S., and K. Johnson. 2004. Profiling Domestic Violence: A Multi-Country Study, p. 39. Calverton, Maryland: Measure DHS and ORC MACRO.



• Smaoun, S. 2000. “Violence Against Women in Urban Areas: An Analysis of the Problem from a Gender Perspective,” pp. 29-30. Urban Management Programme Working Paper Series. No. 17. Nairobi, Kenya: UN-Habitat.



• Ibid., pp. 31-32.



• Hindin, M. J., and L. S. Adair. 2002. “Who’s at Risk: Factors Associated with Intimate Partner Violence in the Philippines.” Social Science and Medicine 55(8): 1385-1399.



• McCloskey, L. A., C. Williams, and U. Larsen. 2005. “Gender Inequality and Intimate Partner Violence among Women in Moshi, Tanzania.” Paper presented at the Twenty-fifth IUSSP International Population Conference, Tours, France, 18-23 July 2005. Paris: International Union for the Scientific Study of Population.



• UNFPA and the Population Reference Bureau 2005, p. 10.



• UN Millennium Project. 2006. Public Choices, Private Decisions: Sexual and Reproductive Health and the Millennium Development Goals, p. 3. New York: UNDP.



• Ibid., p. 12.



• Montgomery 2004, p. 9.



• Bazoglu and Mboup 2007; and UNFPA and the Population Reference Bureau 2005, p. 10.



• See: Montgomery 2004; and UN Millennium Project 2006, p. 3.



• UN-Habitat 2006a, p. 16.



• Mosley, W. H., and L. C. Chen. 1984. “An Analytical Framework for the Study of Child Survival in Developing Countries.” Pp. 25-45 in: Child Survival: Strategies for Research. Population and Development Review 10 (Supplement).



• Buvé, A., K. Bishikwabo-Nsarhaza, and G. Mutangadura. 2002. “The Spread and Effect of HIV-1 Infection in Sub-Saharan Africa.” The Lancet 359(9324): 2011-2017.



• UN-Habitat 2006a, Figure 3.4.1.



• Miranda, D. de S. 2000. “Reflexões sobre o papel da cultura na Cidade de São Paulo.” São Paulo em Perspectiva 14(4): 105-110.



• For further readings on urbanization and culture, see: Massey, D. S. 1996. “The Age of Extremes: Concentrated Affluence and Poverty in the Twenty-first Century,” p. 409. Demography 33(4): 395-412; Gill, R. 2000. “Cities and Ethnicity: A Case of De-Ethnicization or Re-Ethnicization?” Sociological Bulletin 49(2): 211-228; and Roy, S. K. 2005. “Urban Development: A Critique.” Journal of the Indian Anthropological Society 40(2-3): 209-226.



• Reader, I. 1989.  “Review Article: Recent Japanese Publications on Religion,” p. 300. Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 16(4): 299-315.



• For further discussion of new religious movements, see: Ellingsen, T. 2004. “The Resurgence of Religion in the Age of Globalization,” p. 4. Paper presented at the 5th Pan-European International Relations Conference: “Constructing World Orders,” the Hague, the Netherlands, 9-11 September 2004. Colchester, United Kingdom: European Consortium on Public Relations Standing Group on International Relations; Dawson, L. L. 1998. “The Cultural Significance of New Religious Movements and Globalization: A Theoretical Prolegomenon,” p. 584. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 37(4): 580-595; and Emerson, M. O., and D. Hartman. 2006. “The Rise of Religious Fundamentalism,” p. 133. Annual Review of Sociology 32: 127-144.



• Moser, C. O. N. 2004. “Urban Violence and Insecurity: An Introductory Roadmap.” Environment and Urbanization 16(2): 3-16; Moser, C. O. N., and C. McIIwaine. 2006. “Latin American Urban Violence as a Development Concern: Towards a Framework for Violence Reduction,” p. 42. World Development. 34(1): 89–112; Arriagada, I., and L. Godoy. 2000. “Prevention or Repression: The False Dilemma of Citizen Security”, p. 113. CEPAL Review. No. 70. Santiago, Chile: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean; and Rolnik, R. 2001. “Territorial Exclusion and Violence: The Case of the State of São Paulo, Brazil.” Geoforum 32(4): 471-482.



• Hagedorn, J. M. 2005. “The Global Impact of Gangs,” p. 160. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 21(2): 153-169.



• Estimate by the InterAmerican Development Bank (IDB). See: Burki, J. S., and G. Perry. 1998. Beyond the Washington Consensus: Institutions Matter, p. 23. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. Cited in: Crime, Democracy, and Development in Latin America, p. 1, by W. C. Prillaman. 2003. Policy Papers on the Americas Series. Vol. 14, Study 6. Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies.



• Briceño-León, R. 2005. “Urban Violence and Public Health in Latin America: A Sociological Explanatory Framework,” p. 1644. Cadernos Saúde Pública 21(6): 1629-1648; and Moser, C. O. N., and D. Rodgers. 2005. Change, Violence and Insecurity in Non-Conflict Situations, p. vi. Working Paper. No. 245. London: Overseas Development Institute.



• Moser and Rodgers 2005, pp. 19-20.



• Ibid., p. 21.



• For further information on young people and urbanization, see: UNFPA. 2007. Growing Up Urban. Supplement to The State of World Population 2007. New York: UNFPA.



• Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. 2003. Youth Explosions in Developing World Cities: Approaches to Reducing Poverty and Conflict in an Urban Age. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.



• For more information, see: UNFPA 2007.



• UN-Habitat 2006a.



• Engle, P. L. 2000. “Urban Women: Balancing Work and Childcare.” 2020 Focus 03: Brief No. 08. Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute. See also: UNESCO. n.d. “Overview: Growing Up in Cities.” Geneva: A UNESCO-MOST Project. Website: www.unesco.org/most/guic/guicaboutframes.htm, accessed 27 February 2007.



• This section is based on: Guzman, J. M. 2006. “Urbanization and Ageing in Developing Countries.” Draft paper prepared for this Report.



• Calculations made using data from: United Nations. 2005b. The Diversity of Changing Population Age Structures in the World (UN/POP/PD/2005/1). United Nations Expert Group Meeting on Social and Economic Implications of Changing Population Age Structure, Mexico City, 31 August–2 September 2005. New York: Population Division, Department of Social and Economic Affairs, United Nations.



• Cutler, S. J., and J. Hendricks. 2001. “Emerging Social Trends.” Ch. 25 in: Handbook of Aging and the Social Sciences, Fifth Edition, edited by R. H. Binstock and L. K. George. 2001. San Diego, California: Academic Press.



• UNCHS (Habitat). 1993. Improving the Quality of Life of Elderly and Disabled People in Human Settlements: Volume I: A Resource Book of Policy and Programmes from around the World (H/284/93E). Nairobi: UNCHS (Habitat).



• In the four big cities study, it has been stated that: “Developing programs that identify vulnerable older people without violating their civil liberties is a crucial challenge . . .” — Rodwin, V. G., M. K. Gusmano, and R. N. Butler. 2006. “Growing Older in World Cities: Implications for Health and Long-Term Care Policy,” p. 4. Ch. 1 in: Growing Older in World Cities: New York, London, Paris, and Tokyo, edited by V. G. Rodwin and M. K. Gusmano. 2006. Nashville, Tennessee: Vanderbilt University Press.



• Kessides, C. 2005. “Contributions of Urban Development to Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Draft. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.



• UN-Habitat. 2006b. Enabling Shelter Strategies: Review of Experience from Two Decades of Implementation. Nairobi, Kenya: UN-Habitat. 



• Carolini, G. 2006. “Community Organizations of the Urban Poor: Realizing the MDGs and Planning for Urban Population Growth.” Draft paper prepared for this Report.



• d’Cruz, C., and D. Satterthwaite. 2005. “Building Homes, Changing Official Approaches: The Work of Urban Poor Organizations and their Federations and their Contributions to Meeting the Millennium Development Goals in Urban Areas,” p. 1. IIED Poverty Reduction in Urban Areas Series. Working Paper. No. 16. London: International Institute for Environment and Development.



• Baumann, T., J. Bolnick, and D. Mitlin. 2005. “The Age of Cities and Organizations of the Urban Poor: The Work of the South African Homeless People’s Federation and the People’s Dialogue on Land and Shelter,” pp. i-ii. IIED Working Paper 2 on Poverty Reduction in Urban Areas. London: International Institute for Environment and Development.



• Warah, R. 2002. “Afghan Women’s Struggle Behind the Veil.” Habitat Debate 8(4): 8-9.



• Racelis, M. 2005. “Recasting Urban Power Relations.” In Focus 7: 16-17. New York: International Poverty Centre, UNDP.



• UNDP 2006b, p. 63.



• Cities Alliance. 2006. Annual Report 2006, p. 11. Washington, D. C.: Cities Alliance.



• UN-Habitat. 2006c. Our Future: Sustainable Cities: Turning Ideas into Action. (HSP/WUF/3/2), p. 27. Background Paper. World Urban Forum III, Vancouver, Canada, 19 –23 June 2006. Nairobi: UN-Habitat.



• Patel, S., and D. Mitlin. 2002. “Sharing Experiences and Changing Lives.” Community Development Journal 37(2): 125-136. Cited in: Carolini 2006, p. 11.



• See: Shack/Slum Dwellers International. n.d. “International Advocacy.” Cape Town, South Africa: Shack/Slum Dwellers International. Website: http://www.sdinet.org/rituals/ritual9.htm, accessed 7 February 2007; and the Huairou Commission. n.d. “Grassroots Women on the Move: Acting Locally, Speaking Globally.” Brooklyn, New York: Huairou Commission. Website:  www.huairou.org/index.html, accessed on 7 February 2007.



• UN Millennium Project. 2005b. A Home in the City. Task Force on Improving the Lives of Slum Dwellers. London and Sterling, Virginia: Earthscan.



• Ibid., p. 3.



• See: The World Bank. n.d. “Poverty Reduction Strategies.” Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. Website:
  http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/EXTPRS/
  0,,menuPK:384207~pagePK:149018~piPK:149093~theSitePK:384201,00.html, accessed 8 February 2007.

• UN-Habitat 2006b, pp. 36-37.

• nited Nations. 2006a. Implementation of the Outcome of the United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II) and Strengthening of the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat): Report of the Secretary General (A/61/262), para. 8. New York: United Nations.



• This chapter draws heavily on: McGranahan, G., D. Mitlin, and D. Satterthwaite. 2006. “Land and Services for the Urban Poor in Urbanizing Countries.” Draft paper prepared for this Report; Tacoli, C., G. McGranahan, and D. Satterthwaite. 2006. “Urbanization, Poverty and Inequity: Is Rural-urban Migration a Poverty Problem, or Part of the Solution?” Draft paper prepared for this Report; and Martine, G. 2006. “Poverty, Space and Urban Growth.” Draft paper prepared for this Report.



• “There is no economic development without urbanization. Attempts to curb urbanization may have an adverse effect on economic development.” — Tannerfeldt, G., and P. Ljung. 2006. More Urban, Less Poor: an Introduction to Urban Development and Management, p. 29. London: Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency and Earthscan.



• The World Bank. 2000. Cities in Transition: World Bank Urban and Local Government Strategy, pp. 36-37. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.



• UN-Habitat. 2006. State of the World’s Cities 2006/7: The Millennium Development Goals and Urban Sustainability, p. 16. London: Earthscan.



• In 1996, 51 per cent of developing countries had policies to lower migration to urban agglomerations; this proportion rose to 73 per cent in 2005. See: United Nations. 2006b. World Population Policies 2005 (ST/ESA/SER.A/254). New York: Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations.



• UN Millennium Project. 2005. Investing in Development: A Practical Plan to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals, p. xix. Report to the UN Secretary-General. London and Sterling, Virginia: Earthscan.



• Carolini, G. 2006. “Community Organizations of the Urban Poor: Realizing the MDGs and Planning for Urban Population Growth,” p. 1. Draft paper prepared for this Report.



• It is worth noting that many of the grass-roots organizations have been formed by poor urban women and have evolved to provide the foundation for large urban social movements.



• In several instances, this Report alludes to the anti-urban bias of policymakers. This may cause some confusion for those familiar with the “urban bias” concept used by some economists to try to explain why rural areas remained poor. The term “anti-urban bias” is used here as short-hand simply to refer to the opposition of planners and policymakers to the demographic growth of cities and the many ways in which they try to prevent or retard it. Hence, the two concepts are not related or direct opposites.



• du Plessis, J. 2005. “The Growing Problem of Forced Evictions and the Crucial Importance of Community-based, Locally Appropriate Alternatives.” Environment and Urbanization 17(1): 123-134.



• See: Montgomery, M. R., et al., Panel on Urban Dynamics, National Research Council (eds.). 2003. Cities Transformed: Demographic Change and Its Implications in the Developing World, pp. 176-177. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press; and Rodriguez and Martine 2006, pp. 10-11.



• The World Bank 2000, p. 2.



• This is the case, for instance, of Nepal. Only 17 per cent of the country’s 28 million population lives in urban areas. However, the combined forces of poverty and political instability swell the numbers of rural to urban migrants, and present a dire situation in urban slums. Nepal has been urbanizing very rapidly, at an average annual rate of 6.65 per cent in the intercensal period 1991-2001. Most of the increase has come from migration, intensified by an 11-year conflict, especially to the southern Terai region and to the slums of Kathmandu. There is no official record of the numbers of internally displaced persons (IDPs) in the country, but estimates range from 200,000 to 500,000. (Sources: UNFPA-Nepal Country Office. December 2006. Personal communication; and spreadsheets received from the United Nations Population Division.)



• “The most constructive way of looking at the productive interlinkages among urban and rural areas may be as a virtuous circle, whereby access to (urban) markets and services for non-farm production stimulates agricultural productivity and rural incomes, which in turn generate demand and labour supply for more such goods and services. The circle provides multiple entry points, and opportunities should be seized where they appear.” — Kessides, C. 2006. The Urban Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa: Implications for Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction, p. xvii. Africa Region Working Paper Series. No. 97. Washington, D. C.: Cities Alliance.



• Angel, S., S. C. Sheppard, and D. L. Civco. 2005. The Dynamics of Global Urban Expansion, p. 91. Washington, D.C.: Transport and Urban Development Department, the World Bank.



• Hardoy, J. E., D. Mitlin, and D. Satterthwaite. 1992. Environmental Problems in Third World Cities, p. 34. London: Earthscan Publications.



• United Nations. 1995. Population and Development, vol. 1: Programme of Action adopted at the International Conference on Population and Development: Cairo: 5-13 September 1994, Section 9.1. New York: Department of Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis, United Nations.



• Thus, the point has been made that Target 11 of the MDGs—to improve the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers by 2020—has generally been perceived as relatively easy to achieve, unlike some of the other MDG targets. This optimism, in addition to an uncharacteristically low target, apparently “. . . reflects an increasing acknowledgement and documentation of the successful improvements made through participatory and locally-led projects in slums”. — Carolini 2006, p. 1.



• Tannerfeldt and Ljung 2006, p. 97.



• In developing countries, it is common for street vendors to sell individual cigarettes at a higher price than their unit price if sold by the pack. Poor people pay more per unit used of water, fuel and other necessities because they buy only small quantities. Similarly, fitting the size of plots to the buying power of the poor usually results in higher prices per square metre. See: Smolka, M., and A. Larangeira. 2006. “Informality and Poverty in Latin American Urban Policy.” Draft paper prepared for this Report.



• United Nations. 26 October 2006. “Habitat Chief Tells Second Committee of Looming Need for Pro-poor Mortgage Financing as Poverty Threatens Living Standards in World’s Cities” (GA/EF/3160), pp. 3-4. Press release. New York: United Nations.



• “In many countries, the planning horizons of politicians are too short to engage in longer-term planning and preparation for orderly urban expansion.”— Angel, Sheppard, and Civco 2005, p. 101.



• It is often wrongly assumed that most of the urban poor and those in illegal settlements are rural migrants, and thus they are denied the right to vote.



• For a discussion of how such processes have operated in Brasilia, see, for instance: Acioly, Jr., C. C. 1994. “Incremental Land Development in Brasilia: Can the Urban Poor Escape from Suburbanization?” Third World Planning Review 16(3): 243-261; and Aubertin, C. 1992. “Le droit au logement: enjeu démocratique ou instrument du clientélisme: L’exemple de Brasilia: District federal.” Cahiers des Sciences Humaines 28(3): 461-479.



• In this sense, an exceptional effort to regulate and sanitize land markets is currently going on in Spain, where land records going back seven years are being pored over and a number of powerful people are being indicted for alleged improprieties and irregularities in land transactions. (See: “Dos nuevos arrestados en la Operación Malaya.” 6 February 2007. El Pais. Website:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/espana/nuevos/arrestados/Operacion/Malaya
  /elpepuesp/20070206elpepunac_7/Tes, accessed 6 February 2007.) It coincides with a civil movement aimed at promoting affordable housing for all. This type of initiative would have to be implemented on a wide scale in developing countries as part of a strategy to regulate land markets.



• United Nations 2006a, p. 5.



• Angel, Sheppard, and Civco 2005.



• Ibid., p. 102.

• Angel, S., S. C. Sheppard, and D. L. Civco. 2005. The Dynamics of Global Urban Expansion, p. 102. Washington, D.C.: Transport and Urban Development Department, the World Bank.



• Ibid., p. 1.



• This figure refers to urban settlements, including their green areas and empty spaces, as measured by (adjusted) night-time lights. It was provided by the Global Rural-Urban Mapping Project, alpha version (GRUMP alpha), Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN), Columbia University; International Food Policy Research Institute; the World Bank; and Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). 2004. Gridded Population of the World, version 3, with Urban Reallocation (GPW-UR). Palisades, New York: Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center (SEDAC), Columbia University. Website: http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/gpw, last accessed 14 February 2007.  It thus differs from the figures on urban density provided from a study by: Angel, S., S. C. Sheppard, and D. L. Civco (2005, p. 1.) which refer only to the built-up areas of cities having at least 100,000 people.



• World Resources Institute. 1996. World Resources 1996-97: A Guide to the Global Environment: The Urban Environment, pp. 57-59. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.



• Martine, G. 2006. “Population/-Development/Environment Trends in a Globalized Context: Challenges for the 21st Century.” Genus 61(3-4): 247-277.



• The concept of “urban sprawl” has not been clearly and consensually defined. In practice, however, average urban densities are a good summary indicator of sprawl. All exercises come up with significant variations between scores of different cities, despite the differing measures and indicators of “sprawl” that are employed.  (See: Lopez, R., and H. P. Hynes. 2003. “Sprawl in the 1990s:  Measurement, Distribution, and Trends.” Urban Affairs Review 38(3): 325-355. Cited in: “Urban Sprawl and Sustainable Cities: A Review,” p. 5, by D. J. Hogan and R. Ojima. 2006. Draft paper prepared for this Report.



• Angel, Sheppard, and Civco 2005, p. 102.



• Angel. S. 2006. “Measuring Global Sprawl: The Spatial Structure of the Planet’s Urban Landscape,” p. 13. Unpublished paper.



• Angel, Sheppard, and Civco 2005, pp. 1-2. This may actually be a low estimate of declining densities. In the United States, at least, a study of 282 metropolitan areas found that the growth of land area outpaced population growth two to one (Reported in: Hogan and Ojima 2006, p. 3.).



• Angel, Sheppard, and Civco 2005, pp. 1-2.



• Hogan and Ojima 2006, p. 6.



• Arbury, J. n.d. “From Urban Sprawl to Compact City: An Analysis of Urban Growth Management in Auckland.” Master’s Thesis. Auckland, New Zealand: University of Auckland. Website: http://portal.jarbury.net/thesis.pdf, accessed 18 September 2006.



• Ibid., p. 21.



• Monte Mor, R. L. 2006. “O que é o urbano no mundo contemporâneo,” p. 11. Texto para Discussão, UFMG/Cedeplar, Belo Horizonte. Website: www.cedeplar.ufmg.br, last accessed 18 December 2006. Cited in: Hogan and Ojima 2006, p. 16.



• Richardson, H. W., and C.-H. C. Bae (eds.). 2004. Urban Sprawl in Western Europe and the United States. Aldershot, United Kingdom: Ashgate. Cited in: Hogan and Ojima 2006, p. 3.



• Pumain, D. 2004. “Urban Sprawl: Is There a French Case?” Pp. 137-157 in: Richardson and Bae 2004.



• Munoz, F. 2003. “Lock Living: Urban Sprawl in Mediterranean Cities.” Cities 20(6): 381-385. Cited in: Hogan and Ojima 2006, p. 8.



• Roca, J., M. C. Burns, and J. M. Carreras. 2004. “Monitoring Urban Sprawl around Barcelona’s Metropolitan Area with the Aid of Satellite Imagery.” Paper prepared for the 20th ISPRS Congress, Istanbul, Commission 1, Turkey, 12-23 July 2004. Istanbul, Turkey: International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing; and Munoz 2003. Both cited in: Hogan and Ojima 2006, p. 8.



• Rio de Janeiro’s “Cidade de Deus” (City of God), made famous by a movie of that name, was created when the residents of well-located favelas were removed to a new settlement on the outskirts of the city in order to permit the construction of high rise apartments for the wealthy in the original favela locations. 



• Hogan and Ojima 2006, p. 8.



• This and the following section have greatly benefited from: Tacoli, C. 2006. “A Note on Sprawl and Peri-urbanization.” Draft note prepared for this Report.



• Allen, A. 2003. “Environmental Planning and Management of the Peri-urban Interface: Perspectives on an Emerging Field,” p. 136. Environment and Urbanization 15(1): 135-148; Simon, D., D. McGregor, and K. Nsiah-Gyabaah. 2004. “The Changing Urban–rural Interface of African Cities: Definitional Issues and an Application to Kumasi, Ghana,” p. 235. Environment and Urbanization 16(2): 235-248; and Parkinson, J., and K. Tayler. 2003. “Decentralized Wastewater Management in Peri-urban Areas in Low-income Countries,” p. 75. Environment and Urbanization 15(1): 75-90.



• Deliberate strategies of letting land lie vacant while urban infrastructure approaches and increases its value “. . . may be more specific to developing countries, where zoning, tax structures and the lack of more profitable and secure investments increase the appeal of investment in land.”  — Hogan and Ojima 2006, pp. 6-7.



• See: Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment. n.d. “Environmental Change in Urban Areas: A SCOPE Project.” Website: www.scope-uk.ac.uk/projects/PUECHsumOct01.html, last accessed 14 February 2007.



• Tacoli, C. 1999. “Understanding the Opportunities and Constraints for Low-Income Groups in the Peri-Urban Interface: The Contribution of Livelihood Frameworks,” p. 7. Draft for Discussion. London: Peri-urban Interface Project, Development Planning Unit, University College London.



• Tacoli 2006.



• Leaf, M. 2002. “A Tale of Two Villages: Globalization and Peri-urban Change in China and Vietnam.” Cities 19(1): 23-31.



• Webster, D. 2002. On the Edge: Shaping the future of Peri-Urban East Asia. Asia/Pacific Research Center Discussion Paper. Stanford, California: Asia/Pacific Research Center, Stanford University



• Webster, D., et al. 2003. Emerging Third Stage Peri-urbanization: Functional Specialization in the Hangzhou Peri-urban Region. Stanford, California: Asia/Pacific Research Center, Stanford University.



• Allen 2003, p. 137; Ducrot, R., et al. 2004. “Articulating Land and Water Dynamics with Urbanization: An Attempt to Model Natural Resources Management at the Urban Edge,” p. 87. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems 28(1-2): 85-106; and Kombe, W. J. 2005. “Land Use Dynamics in Peri-urban Areas and Their Implications on the Urban Growth and Form: The Case of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania,” p. 120. Habitat International 29(1): 113-135.



• Allen, A., N. da Silva, and E. Corubolo. 1999. “Environmental Problems and Opportunities of the Peri-urban Interface and Their Impact upon the Poor,” p. 1. Draft for Discussion. London: Peri-urban Interface Project, Development Planning Unit, University College London; and Simon, McGregor, and Nsiah-Gyabaah 2004, pp. 238 and 242.



• Rostam, K. 1997. “Industrial Expansion, Employment Changes and Urbanization in the Peri-urban Areas of Klang-Langat Valley, Malaysia.” Asian Profile 25(4): 303-315.



• “Activities typically undertaken outside the urban boundaries include disposal of solid wastes in landfills and sewage in surface water, quarries for construction materials, timber for firewood and construction, etc.”  — Tacoli, C. 27 November 2006. Personal communication.



• Parkinson and Tayler 2003, p. 75; and Kombe 2005, p. 114.



• Tacoli 1999, p. 7.



• See the “environmental transition” concept outlined by: McGranahan, G., et al. 2001. The Citizens at Risk: From Urban Sanitation to Sustainable Cities. London: Earthscan.



• Songsore, J., and G. McGranahan. 1998. “The Political Economy of Household Environmental Management: Gender, Environment, and Epidemiology in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area.” World Development 26(3): 395-412.



• Arbury n.d.



• Ibid.



• Hogan and Ojima 2006, p. 18.



• United Nations. 2006. Implementation of the Outcome of the United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II) and Strengthening of the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat): Report of the Secretary General (A/61/262), para. 26(d). New York: United Nations.



• Angel, Sheppard, and Civco 2005, pp. 11-13.



• Ibid., pp. 91 and 95.



• Ibid., p. 101.



• Ibid., p. 101. Such preparations would include: securing the public lands and public rights-of-way that are necessary to serve future urban growth; protecting sensitive lands from building, and investing in minimal infrastructure such as transport grids, water supply, sewerage and drainage networks to accommodate growth.



• Hogan and Ojima 2006, p. 12; and International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Change. 2005. SciencePlan: Urbanization and Global Environmental Change. IHDP Report. No. 15. Bonn, Germany: International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Change.



• Tacoli 2006.



• Hogan and Ojima 2006, pp. 7 and 16.



• See also: The World Bank. 2000. Cities in Transition. World Bank Urban and Local Government Strategy, p. 105. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. This study suggests the use of the term “commutershed” to refer to a self-defined economic area that represents a particular local and subregional economy in the minds of its participants.

• Worldwatch Institute. 2007. “Preface,” p. xxiv. State of the World 2007: Our Urban Future. New York and London: W. W. Norton and Company.



• This chapter is mostly based on: Sanchez Rodriguez, R. 2006. “Urban Growth and Sustainability: New Approaches.” Draft paper prepared for this Report; de Sherbinin, A. 2007. “Linking Urban Growth and GEC.” Note prepared for this Report; and Balk, D., and B. Anderson. 2007. “Urban Growth and Ecosystems: Recent Patterns and Future Implications.” Draft paper prepared for this Report.



• For instance, a recently published report on cities by the Worldwatch Institute (2007. State of the World 2007: Our Urban Future. New York and London: W. W. Norton and Company) documents an impressive number of positive stories showing how people are dealing effectively with current social and environmental problems in cities.



• Examples of local or national problems that contribute to GEC include carbon-dioxide and pollutant emissions, land-cover change and habitat loss, invasive species, oceanic pollution and over fishing. All of them have significant ramifications when aggregated globally.



• McGranahan, G., et al. 2005. “Urban Systems.” Ch. 27 in: Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Current State and Trends: Findings of the Condition and Trends Working Group, by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Series. New York: Island Press.



• Wallace, S. January 2007. “Amazon: Forest to Farms.” National Geographic.



• Wackernagel, M., and W. Rees. 1996. Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human on Earth. San Francisco, California: New Catalyst Books.



• See: McGranahan, et al. 2005.



• Tortajada, C., and E. Castelán. 2003. “Water Management for a Megacity: Mexico City Metropolitan Area.” Ambio 32(2): 124-129; and Pocha, J. 5 September 2004. “China’s Water Supply in Danger of Drying Up,” p. A-16. San Francisco Chronicle.



• Rosegrant, M. W., and C. Ringler. 1998. “Impact on Food Security and Rural Development of Transferring Water out of Agriculture. Water Policy 1(6): 567-586.



• Vörösmarty, C. 2006. “Box D.2: Water Impoundment and Flow Fragmentation.” Pp. 259-260 in: Pilot 2006 Environmental Performance Index, by the Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy and the Center for International Earth Science Information Network, Columbia University. 2006. New Haven, Connecticut, and Palisades, New York: Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy and the Center for International Earth Science Information Network, Columbia University.



• According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency. See: United States Environmental Protection Agency. n.d. “Heat Island Effect.” Washington, D.C.: United States Environmental Protection Agency. Website: http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/content/ActionsLocalHeatIslandEffect.html, accessed 29 January 2007.



• Ashmore, M. R. 2005. “Assessing the Future Global Impacts of Ozone on Vegetation.” Plant, Cell and Environment 28(8): 949-964.



• Lo, C. P., and D. A. Quattrochi. 2003. “Land-use and Land-cover Change, Urban Heat Island Phenomenon, and Health Implications: A Remote Sensing Approach.” Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 69(9): 1053-1063.



• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2007. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis: Summary for Policy Makers. Geneva: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Website: www.ipcc.ch/SPM2feb07.pdf, accessed 6 February 2007.



• UNEP. 2004. UNEP 2003 Annual Report. New York: UNEP.



• Perlman, J., and M. O. Sheehan. 2007. “Fighting Poverty and Injustice in Cities,” Ch. 9 in: Worldwatch Institute 2007; and de Sherbinin, A., A. Schiller, and A. Pulsipher. Forthcoming. “The Vulnerability of Global Cities to Climate Hazards.” Environment and Urbanization.



• Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters. 2006. EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database. Brussels, Belgium: Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters.



• This section is based on: McGranahan, G., D. Balk, and B. Anderson. Forthcoming. “The Rising Risks of Climate Change: Urban Population Distribution and Characteristics in Low Elevation Coastal Zones.” Environment and Urbanization; and McGranahan, et al. 2005.



• McGranahan, Balk, and Anderson, Forthcoming.



• Gugler, J. 1996. “Urbanization in Africa South of the Sahara: New Identities in Conflict.” Ch. 7 in: The Urban Transformation of the Developing World, edited by J. Gugler. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 



• For example, the International Council of Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) (Website: www.iclei.org/, last accessed 7 March 2007). Also, for an exploration of different scales of initiative and the role of city networks in relation to climate change, see: Bulkeley, H., and M. Betsill. 2003. Cities and Climate Change: Urban Sustainability and Global Environmental Governance. Routledge Studies in Physical Geography and Environment. London: Routledge.

CHAPTER 6

• Cohen, B. 2006. “Urbanization in Developing Countries: Current Trends, Future Projections, and Key Challenges for Sustainability," p. 78. Technology in Society 28(1-2): 63-80.
  
  
• For a comprehensive discussion of the concept of governance as applied to urban areas, see: Montgomery, M. R., et al., Panel on Urban Dynamics, National Research Council (eds.). 2003. Cities Transformed: Demographic Change and Its Implications in the Developing World, pp. 355-409. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press; and the World Bank. 2000. Cities in Transition: World Bank Urban and Local Government Strategy. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
  
  
• The World Bank 2000, p. 35.
  
  
• Montgomery, M. R., et al., Panel on Urban Dynamics, National Research Council (eds.) 2003.
  
  
• In view of further climate change—as underlined by the recent report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change—including probable future rises in mean sea levels, low-elevation coastal areas, which are home to 360 million urbanites, merit specific attention. See: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2007. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis: Summary for Policy Makers. Geneva: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Website: www.ipcc.ch/SPM2feb07.pdf, accessed 14 February 2007.
  
  
• UN Millennium Project. 2006. Public Choices, Private Decisions: Sexual and Reproductive Health and the Millennium Development Goals, p. 72. New York: UNDP.
  
  
• UNESCO. 2001. Women and Urban Crisis: Gender Sensitive Strategies for Managing Critical Urban Environments in the South and East, p. 14. Paris: MOST-UNESCO.
  
  
• An authoritative World Bank study found much higher than expected inequalities on such measures as infant and child mortality, maternal mortality, malnutrition and fertility. See: Gwatkin, D., et al. 2000. Socio-economic Differences in Health, Nutrition and Population: 45 Countries. Washington, D.C.: Health, Nutrition and Population Department, the World Bank.
  
  
• Ibid.; and Gwatkin, D. R., A. Wagstaff, and A. S. Yazbeck. 2005. Reaching the Poor with Health, Nutrition and Population Services: What Works, What Doesn't, and Why. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
  
  
• These results have been described as indicating an "absolute system failure" in reproductive health care for poor and vulnerable people. See: Campbell-White, A., T. Merrick, and A. Yazbeck. 2007. "Reproductive Health: The Missing MDG: Poverty, Health and Development in a Changing World." Preliminary draft. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
  
  
• UN Millennium Project 2006, p. 61.
  
  
• This section is partly based on: Torres, H. G. 2006. "Socioeconomic and Demographic Information for Urban Social Policies." Draft paper prepared for this Report.
  
  
• The World Bank. 2003. World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work for Poor People, p. 22. Washington, D.C., and Oxford: The World Bank and Oxford University Press.
  
  
• Lyons, M., C. Smuts, and A. Stephens. 2001. "Participation, Empowerment and Sustainability: (How) Do the Links Work?" Urban Studies 38(8): 1233-1251; and Mitlin, D., and J. Thompson. 1995. “Participatory Approaches in Urban Areas: Strengthening Civil Society or Reinforcing the Status Quo?" Environment and Urbanization 7(1): 231-250.
  
  
• UNCHS (Habitat). 2000. Women and Urban Governance, p. 35. Policy Dialogue Series. No. 1. Nairobi: UNCHS (Habitat).
  
  
• Mitlin and Thompson 1995.
  
  
• Court, J., and L. Cotterrell. 2006. What Political and Institutional Context Issues Matter for Bridging Research and Policy: A Literature Review and Discussion of Data Collection Approaches. ODI Working Paper. No. 269. London: Overseas Development Institute.
  
  
• Crewe, E., and J. Young. 2002. Bridging Research and Policy: Context, Evidence and Links. ODI Working Paper. No. 173. London: Overseas Development Institute.