CHAPTER 4

• Angel, S., S. C. Sheppard, and D. L. Civco. 2005. The Dynamics of Global Urban Expansion, p. 102. Washington, D.C.: Transport and Urban Development Department, the World Bank.



• Ibid., p. 1.



• This figure refers to urban settlements, including their green areas and empty spaces, as measured by (adjusted) night-time lights. It was provided by the Global Rural-Urban Mapping Project, alpha version (GRUMP alpha), Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN), Columbia University; International Food Policy Research Institute; the World Bank; and Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). 2004. Gridded Population of the World, version 3, with Urban Reallocation (GPW-UR). Palisades, New York: Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center (SEDAC), Columbia University. Website: http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/gpw, last accessed 14 February 2007.  It thus differs from the figures on urban density provided from a study by: Angel, S., S. C. Sheppard, and D. L. Civco (2005, p. 1.) which refer only to the built-up areas of cities having at least 100,000 people.



• World Resources Institute. 1996. World Resources 1996-97: A Guide to the Global Environment: The Urban Environment, pp. 57-59. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.



• Martine, G. 2006. “Population/-Development/Environment Trends in a Globalized Context: Challenges for the 21st Century.” Genus 61(3-4): 247-277.



• The concept of “urban sprawl” has not been clearly and consensually defined. In practice, however, average urban densities are a good summary indicator of sprawl. All exercises come up with significant variations between scores of different cities, despite the differing measures and indicators of “sprawl” that are employed.  (See: Lopez, R., and H. P. Hynes. 2003. “Sprawl in the 1990s:  Measurement, Distribution, and Trends.” Urban Affairs Review 38(3): 325-355. Cited in: “Urban Sprawl and Sustainable Cities: A Review,” p. 5, by D. J. Hogan and R. Ojima. 2006. Draft paper prepared for this Report.



• Angel, Sheppard, and Civco 2005, p. 102.



• Angel. S. 2006. “Measuring Global Sprawl: The Spatial Structure of the Planet’s Urban Landscape,” p. 13. Unpublished paper.



• Angel, Sheppard, and Civco 2005, pp. 1-2. This may actually be a low estimate of declining densities. In the United States, at least, a study of 282 metropolitan areas found that the growth of land area outpaced population growth two to one (Reported in: Hogan and Ojima 2006, p. 3.).



• Angel, Sheppard, and Civco 2005, pp. 1-2.



• Hogan and Ojima 2006, p. 6.



• Arbury, J. n.d. “From Urban Sprawl to Compact City: An Analysis of Urban Growth Management in Auckland.” Master’s Thesis. Auckland, New Zealand: University of Auckland. Website: http://portal.jarbury.net/thesis.pdf, accessed 18 September 2006.



• Ibid., p. 21.



• Monte Mor, R. L. 2006. “O que é o urbano no mundo contemporâneo,” p. 11. Texto para Discussão, UFMG/Cedeplar, Belo Horizonte. Website: www.cedeplar.ufmg.br, last accessed 18 December 2006. Cited in: Hogan and Ojima 2006, p. 16.



• Richardson, H. W., and C.-H. C. Bae (eds.). 2004. Urban Sprawl in Western Europe and the United States. Aldershot, United Kingdom: Ashgate. Cited in: Hogan and Ojima 2006, p. 3.



• Pumain, D. 2004. “Urban Sprawl: Is There a French Case?” Pp. 137-157 in: Richardson and Bae 2004.



• Munoz, F. 2003. “Lock Living: Urban Sprawl in Mediterranean Cities.” Cities 20(6): 381-385. Cited in: Hogan and Ojima 2006, p. 8.



• Roca, J., M. C. Burns, and J. M. Carreras. 2004. “Monitoring Urban Sprawl around Barcelona’s Metropolitan Area with the Aid of Satellite Imagery.” Paper prepared for the 20th ISPRS Congress, Istanbul, Commission 1, Turkey, 12-23 July 2004. Istanbul, Turkey: International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing; and Munoz 2003. Both cited in: Hogan and Ojima 2006, p. 8.



• Rio de Janeiro’s “Cidade de Deus” (City of God), made famous by a movie of that name, was created when the residents of well-located favelas were removed to a new settlement on the outskirts of the city in order to permit the construction of high rise apartments for the wealthy in the original favela locations. 



• Hogan and Ojima 2006, p. 8.



• This and the following section have greatly benefited from: Tacoli, C. 2006. “A Note on Sprawl and Peri-urbanization.” Draft note prepared for this Report.



• Allen, A. 2003. “Environmental Planning and Management of the Peri-urban Interface: Perspectives on an Emerging Field,” p. 136. Environment and Urbanization 15(1): 135-148; Simon, D., D. McGregor, and K. Nsiah-Gyabaah. 2004. “The Changing Urban–rural Interface of African Cities: Definitional Issues and an Application to Kumasi, Ghana,” p. 235. Environment and Urbanization 16(2): 235-248; and Parkinson, J., and K. Tayler. 2003. “Decentralized Wastewater Management in Peri-urban Areas in Low-income Countries,” p. 75. Environment and Urbanization 15(1): 75-90.



• Deliberate strategies of letting land lie vacant while urban infrastructure approaches and increases its value “. . . may be more specific to developing countries, where zoning, tax structures and the lack of more profitable and secure investments increase the appeal of investment in land.”  — Hogan and Ojima 2006, pp. 6-7.



• See: Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment. n.d. “Environmental Change in Urban Areas: A SCOPE Project.” Website: www.scope-uk.ac.uk/projects/PUECHsumOct01.html, last accessed 14 February 2007.



• Tacoli, C. 1999. “Understanding the Opportunities and Constraints for Low-Income Groups in the Peri-Urban Interface: The Contribution of Livelihood Frameworks,” p. 7. Draft for Discussion. London: Peri-urban Interface Project, Development Planning Unit, University College London.



• Tacoli 2006.



• Leaf, M. 2002. “A Tale of Two Villages: Globalization and Peri-urban Change in China and Vietnam.” Cities 19(1): 23-31.



• Webster, D. 2002. On the Edge: Shaping the future of Peri-Urban East Asia. Asia/Pacific Research Center Discussion Paper. Stanford, California: Asia/Pacific Research Center, Stanford University



• Webster, D., et al. 2003. Emerging Third Stage Peri-urbanization: Functional Specialization in the Hangzhou Peri-urban Region. Stanford, California: Asia/Pacific Research Center, Stanford University.



• Allen 2003, p. 137; Ducrot, R., et al. 2004. “Articulating Land and Water Dynamics with Urbanization: An Attempt to Model Natural Resources Management at the Urban Edge,” p. 87. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems 28(1-2): 85-106; and Kombe, W. J. 2005. “Land Use Dynamics in Peri-urban Areas and Their Implications on the Urban Growth and Form: The Case of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania,” p. 120. Habitat International 29(1): 113-135.



• Allen, A., N. da Silva, and E. Corubolo. 1999. “Environmental Problems and Opportunities of the Peri-urban Interface and Their Impact upon the Poor,” p. 1. Draft for Discussion. London: Peri-urban Interface Project, Development Planning Unit, University College London; and Simon, McGregor, and Nsiah-Gyabaah 2004, pp. 238 and 242.



• Rostam, K. 1997. “Industrial Expansion, Employment Changes and Urbanization in the Peri-urban Areas of Klang-Langat Valley, Malaysia.” Asian Profile 25(4): 303-315.



• “Activities typically undertaken outside the urban boundaries include disposal of solid wastes in landfills and sewage in surface water, quarries for construction materials, timber for firewood and construction, etc.”  — Tacoli, C. 27 November 2006. Personal communication.



• Parkinson and Tayler 2003, p. 75; and Kombe 2005, p. 114.



• Tacoli 1999, p. 7.



• See the “environmental transition” concept outlined by: McGranahan, G., et al. 2001. The Citizens at Risk: From Urban Sanitation to Sustainable Cities. London: Earthscan.



• Songsore, J., and G. McGranahan. 1998. “The Political Economy of Household Environmental Management: Gender, Environment, and Epidemiology in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area.” World Development 26(3): 395-412.



• Arbury n.d.



• Ibid.



• Hogan and Ojima 2006, p. 18.



• United Nations. 2006. Implementation of the Outcome of the United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II) and Strengthening of the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat): Report of the Secretary General (A/61/262), para. 26(d). New York: United Nations.



• Angel, Sheppard, and Civco 2005, pp. 11-13.



• Ibid., pp. 91 and 95.



• Ibid., p. 101.



• Ibid., p. 101. Such preparations would include: securing the public lands and public rights-of-way that are necessary to serve future urban growth; protecting sensitive lands from building, and investing in minimal infrastructure such as transport grids, water supply, sewerage and drainage networks to accommodate growth.



• Hogan and Ojima 2006, p. 12; and International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Change. 2005. SciencePlan: Urbanization and Global Environmental Change. IHDP Report. No. 15. Bonn, Germany: International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Change.



• Tacoli 2006.



• Hogan and Ojima 2006, pp. 7 and 16.



• See also: The World Bank. 2000. Cities in Transition. World Bank Urban and Local Government Strategy, p. 105. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. This study suggests the use of the term “commutershed” to refer to a self-defined economic area that represents a particular local and subregional economy in the minds of its participants.