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Notes
1. Miller, B. D. 1997. “Social Class, Gender
and Intrahousehold Food Allocations to
Children in South Asia.” Social Science
And Medicine 44(11): 1685-1695; and
Das Gupta, M. 1987. “Selective
Discrimination Against Female Children
in Rural Punjab, India.” Population and
Development Review 13(1): 77-100.
2. Leslie, J., E. Ciemins, and S. B. Essama.
1997. “Female Nutritional Status across
the Life-span in sub-Saharan Africa 1:
Prevalence Patterns.” Food and Nutrition
Bulletin 18(1): 20-43. Anthropometric
survey measures do not show significant
differences at young ages in most
settings, but disadvantage need not be
severe to teach and reinforce unequal
gender norms.
3. Leach, F. 1998. “Gender, Education and
Training: An International Perspective.”
Gender and Development 6(2): 9-18.
4. Agarwal, B. 1994. “Gender and
Command over Property: A Critical Gap
in Economic Analysis and Policy in South
Asia.” World Development 22(10):
1455-1478.
5. Heise, L. L., J. Pitanguy, and A. Germain.
1994. Violence Against Women: The
Hidden Health Burden. World Bank
Discussion Papers. No. 255.
Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
6. UNICEF. 2001. Early Marriage: Child
Spouses. Innocenti Digest. No. 7.
Florence, Italy: UNICEF Innocenti
Research Centre. Web site: www.unicef-icdc.
org/publications/pdf/digest7e.pdf.
7. UNICEF, UNAIDS, and WHO. 2002.
Young People and HIV/AIDS: Opportunities
in Crisis. New York: UNICEF.
8. This section depends highly on the
work of: Mensch, B. S., S. Singh, and
J. Casterline. (Forthcoming.) “Trends in
the Timing of First Marriage among Men
and Women in the Developing World.”
Paper presented at the Annual Meeting
of the Population Association of
America, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1-3
May 2003. To be included in the forthcoming
National Academy of Sciences
publication of the Transitions to
Adulthood project.
9. South America and the former Soviet
countries of Asia did not have as many
as a fifth of marriages to teenage women
between 1970 and 1980. Their declines
have been correspondingly small.
10. See: United Nations. 2003. Concise
Report on World Population Monitoring:
2003: Population, Education and
Development: Report of the Secretary-
General (E/CN.9/2003/2). New York:
United Nations.
11. Implementation is clearly more important
than the laws themselves. More
than 20 countries have increased legal
marriage age since 1990 but no clear
relation to the practice is yet apparent.
The relative importance of formal and
customary legal systems varies
considerably.
12. For these analyses, following demographic
convention, marriage includes
all the different forms of socially recognized
unions: cohabitation, consensual
unions, “free unions” and marriage that
is legitimated by custom, religious rites
or civil law. An inclusive definition is
needed for cross-country comparisons
since the frequency of different forms
of union varies considerably across
cultures. Only heterosexual unions
are included in these data sets.
13. This section uses national data and
unweighted national averages for
regions calculated from: United Nations.
2000. World Marriage Patterns 2000.
New York: Population Division,
Department of Economic and Social
Affairs, United Nations. Spreadsheet
available at link at: www.un.org/esa/
population/publications/worldmarriage/
worldmarriage.htm. This database
includes the last available survey from
152 countries. The National Academy of
Sciences analyses (see: Mensch, Singh,
and Casterline [Forthcoming.]) impose
restrictions that allow them to use only
117 countries, and their trend data are
based on 74 countries with multiple
surveys.
14. Eastern Europe averages are higher. In
some Commonwealth of Independent
States, nearly 4 per cent of adolescent
men are married.
15. Half or more of 15-19 year old women
have ever been married in Afghanistan,
Bangladesh, Congo, Democratic
Republic of the Congo, Mali, Niger
and Uganda.
16. The Central Asian Republics and
Kazakhstan average 40 per cent, South
Central Asian countries approach this
level, several sub-regions average at or
near one third (Middle Africa, Eastern
Europe, Central America and
Micronesia). The lowest rates of early
marriage (below 15 per cent) are found
in Northern Africa, East Asia, the
Caribbean, Western and Northern
Europe and Australia and New Zealand.
17. These regions include Eastern, Middle
and Western Africa, the Central Asian
Republics and Kazakhstan and South
Central Asia. Countries exceeding
80 per cent levels include: in South
Central Asia, Nepal, India, Afghanistan,
Bangladesh and the Maldives; in
Western Africa, Benin, the Gambia,
Burkina Faso, Guinea, Mali and Niger;
in Middle Africa, Angola, Chad, Central
African Republic, Democratic Republic
of the Congo; in Eastern Africa, Malawi,
Mozambique and Uganda.
18. UNICEF 2001.
19. Greene, M. E. 1997. “Watering the
Neighbour’s Garden: Investing in
Adolescent Girls in India.” Regional
Working Papers. No. 7. New Delhi:
The Population Council.
20. Arends-Kuenning, M., and S. Amin.
2000. “The Effects of Schooling
Incentive Programs on Household
Resource Allocation in Bangladesh.”
Policy Research Division Working Paper.
No. 133. New York: The Population
Council.
21. Unisa, S. 1995. “Demographic Profile of
the Girl Child in India.” Social Change:
Issues and Perspectives 25(2-3): 30-37;
and Hussain, R., and A. H. Bittles. 1999.
“Consanguineous Marriage and
Differentials in Age at Marriage,
Contraceptive Use and Fertility in
Pakistan.” Journal of Biosocial Science
31(1): 121-138.
22. Sources: Singh, S., and R. Samara. 1996.
“Early Marriage Among Women in
Developing Countries.” International
Family Planning Perspectives 22(4):
148-157, 175; Mensch, B., J. Bruce, and
M. E. Greene. 1998. The Uncharted
Passage: Girls’ Adolescence in the
Developing World. New York: The
Population Council; Hersh, L. 1998.
“Issues at a Glance: Giving up Harmful
Practices.” Washington, D.C., Advocates
for Youth. Web site: www.advocates
foryouth.org/publications/iag/
harmprac.htm, accessed 8 June 2003.
23. Clark, S. 2003. “Early Marriage and HIV
Risks in Sub-Saharan Africa.”
Unpublished manuscript.
24. Sources: Singh and Samara 1996;
Mensch, Bruce, and Greene 1998; and
Hersh 1998.
25. Ellsberg, M. 2002. “Reproductive Health
Consequences of Gender-based
Violence.” Paper presented at “Technical
Update on Gender-based Violence
(GBV) and Reproductive Health/HIV
(RH/HIV),” Interagency Gender
Working Group/United States Agency
for International Development,
Washington, D.C., 1 May 2002, See:
www.prb.org/Content/NavigationMenu/
Measure_Communication/Gender3/
Gender-Based_Violence_and_
Reproductive_Health_and_HIV_AIDS_
3-c.htm, accessed 7 June 2003; and
WHO. 2001. WHO Multi-country Study
on Women’s Health and Domestic
Violence. Geneva: WHO. See:
www.who.int/mipfiles/2255/FinalVAW
progressreportforwebpagewithout
cover.pdf, accessed 21 April 2003.
26. Nepal Health Education, Information,
and Communication Center and UNFPA.
1995. “Arrange the Marriage of Your
Daughter After 20 Years of Age” (Item
No. PO NEP 64). Poster. Kathmandu:
Nepal Health Education, Information,
and Communication Center, Nepal
Ministry of Health. Web site:
www.jhuccp.org, accessed 19 April 2003.
27. Zhu, H. 1996. “Arranged Marriages
Annulled by Law.” China Population Today
13(3): 15.
28. Chandrasekhar, R. 1996. “Childhood in
Rajgarh: Too Young for Wedlock, Too
Old for the Cradle.” Economic and
Political Weekly 31(40): 2721-2722.
29. The relevant projects are described on
the web sites: www.myrada.org/
belgaum.htm, www.myrada.org/
madakasira.htm, www.myrada.org/
hdkote.htm, accessed 8 June 2003.
30. Amin, S., et al. 1997. “Transition to
Adulthood of Female Factory Workers:
Some Evidence from Bangladesh.” Policy
Research Division Working Papers. No.
102. New York: The Population Council.
31. The World Bank. 2003. “Public and
Private Initiatives: Working Together in
Health and Education.” Washington,
D.C.: The World Bank. Web site:
www.worldbank.org/html/extdr/hnp/
health/ppi/pubpri2b.htm, accessed
21 April 2003.
32. See: Amin, S., and G. Sedgh. 1998.
“Incentive schemes for school attendance
in rural Bangladesh.” Policy
Research Division Working Paper. No.
106. New York: The Population Council;
and Arends-Kuenning, M., and S. Amin.
2000. “The Effects of Schooling
Incentive Programmes on Household
Resource Allocation in Bangladesh.”
Policy Research Division Working Paper.
No. 133. New York: The Population
Council.
33. The World Bank 2003.
34. Greene 1997.
35. United Nations. 2002. World Population
Monitoring 2002: Reproductive Rights and
Reproductive Health: Selected Aspects
(ESA/P/WP.717). New York:
Commission on Population and
Development, United Nations.
36. Age at menarche decreases as nutrition
improves in poorly fed populations.
A plateau is reached in the early teens
from which further declines are unlikely.
See for example and references: Khan,
A. D., et al. 1995. “Age at Menarche and
Nutritional Supplementation.” The
Journal of Nutrition 125: 1090S-1096S;
and Whincup, P. H., et al. 2001. “Age
of Menarche in Contemporary British
Teenagers: Survey of Girls Born between
1982 and 1986.” British Medical Journal
(322): 1095-1096.
37. Brown, A., et al. 2001. Sexual Relations
among Young People in Developing
Countries: Evidence from WHO Case
Studies (WHO/RHR/01.8). Occasional
Paper. Geneva: Family and Community
Health, Department of Reproductive
Health and Research, WHO; and
Jejeebhoy, S., and S. Bott. 2003. “Non-
Consensual Sexual Experiences of Young
People: A Review of the Evidence from
Developing Countries.” Paper presented
at the 2003 Annual Meeting of the
Population Association of America,
Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1-3 May 2003.
38. Brown, et al. 2001.
39. Meier, A. 2003. “The Effects of Sexual
Activity on Adolescent Well-being.”
Paper presented at the 2003 Annual
Meeting of the Population Association
of America, Minneapolis, Minnesota,
1-3 May 2003.
40. This discussion relies heavily on the
UNDP/UNFPA/WHO/World Bank
Special Programme of Research,
Development and Research Training in
Human Reproduction: Brown, et al.
2001.
41. Hoff, T., L. Greene, and J. Davis. 2003.
National Survey of Adolescents and Young
Adults: Sexual Health Knowledge, Attitude
and Experiences. Menlo Park, California.:
Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation.
42. Brown, et al. 2001.
43. See: Demographic and Health Surveys
conducted between 1998 and 2001.
Calverton, Maryland: ORC Macro. Web
site: www.measureDHS.com.
44. Ibid.
45. Population Reference Bureau. 2000.
The World’s Youth 2000: Data Sheet.
Washington, D.C.: Population Reference
Bureau.
46. Mendez Ribas, J. M., S. Necchi, and
M. Schufer. 1995. “Risk Awareness and
Sexual Protection: Perceptions and
Behaviour among a Sexually Active
Population, Argentina.” Buenos Aires,
Argentina: Hospital Clinic, University of
Buenos Aires. Unpublished progress
report cited in: Brown, A., et al. 2001.
47. Frase-Blunt, M. 6 October 2002. “The
Sugar Daddies’ Kiss of Death.” The
Washington Post.
48. Brown, et al. 2001.
49. In some settings, e.g., portions of Africa,
sexual relations and childbearing are
part of the extended process leading to
marriage. Even in developed countries
historical rates of first deliveries in the
first six months of marriage have been
significant. See Bledsoe, C.H., and B.
Cohen. 1993. Social Dynamics of
Adolescent Fertility in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Washington D.C.: National Academies
Press.
50. In this case the pregnancy precedes
care-seeking. It does not indicate causation
or vulnerability. See: Brown, et al.
2001.
51. The largest proportion of abortions are
in married women of older ages. The
proportions of young girls who are sexually
active can be small; in the minority
who become pregnant the proportion
opting for abortion remains high. See:
Brown, et al. 2001. Also see: Mundigo,
A., and C. Indriso (eds.) 1999. Abortion
in the Developing World. London: Zed
Books.
52. Only Kazakhstan and the Philippines
report sufficient conceptions for meaningful
reporting. See: Brown, et al. 2001.
53. Ali, M. M., N. Gupta, and I. da Costa
Leite. 2003. “Conception and
Contraception among Young Single
Women: An International Comparison.”
Paper presented at the Annual Meeting
of the Population Association of
America, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1-
3 May 2003.
54. Ibid. Results are reported for 15-24 year
old women. Later analyses may provide
information on under 20 year olds.
55.Ibid. Only Armenia, Kazakhstan and the
Philippines had the required detailed
information. These data were self-reported.
56. Ibid. These included Bolivia, Brazil,
Colombia, the Dominican Republic,
Guatemala, Nicaragua, Paraguay and
Peru. Common law unions are relatively
common in the region.
57. Finger, W. 2000. “Sex Education Helps
Prepare Young Adults.” Network 20(3):
10-15.
58. Various country studies cited in: Best, K.
2000. “Many Youth Face Grim STD
Risks.” Network 20(3): 4-9; Hope
Enterprises, Ltd. 2002a. Report of
Adolescent Condom Survey: Jamaica: 2001.
Prepared for the Commercial Market
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Health International and Hope
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and Bott 2003.
59. Wood, K., and R. Jewkes. 1997.
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