2. NGOs in one narrow sense refer to those organizations accredited by the State to enter into contracts and other formal associations with donors and/or State bodies. Organizations whose operations and management overlap with the State and which operate as agents of the State, such as parastatal enterprises, are often excluded from the common understanding of NGOs.

3. UNFPA. 1999a. Partnership with Civil Society to Implement the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development. New York: Technical and Policy Division, UNFPA.

4. The reports of these forums, which were not a formal intergovernmental process, can be accessed through the ICPD+5 section of UNFPA’s Web site (www.unfpa.org).

5. The international Micro-Credit Summit (Washington, D.C., 2-4 February 1997. Web site: <microcreditsummit.org>.) and the inclusion of micro-credit under the social protection programme of the World Bank are examples of the growing acceptance of this mechanism.

6. An interesting debate contrasts the approaches adopted under the Navrongo Community Health and Family Planning project in northern Ghana and the Consorcio Ramos Mujer in Peru. The former has been criticized by some (see, for example: Schuler, Sidney Ruth. 1999. "Gender and Community Participation in Reproductive Health Projects: Contrasting Models from Peru and Ghana." Paper presented at the Population Association of America Annual Meeting, New York, 25-27 March 1999.) for being based on a demographic rationale focussed on individual women’s choices within a patriarchal setting; these critics applaud the women’s association-based approach of the latter. However, it is interesting that despite their differing initial premises and rationales, the two programmes have started to converge as they develop. The Ghanaian project has facilitated the expansion of women’s political role and representation in local conclaves and increasingly addressed the social context of women’s decisions; the Peruvian women’s groups have given greater attention to debates about whether and how to engage men in their action programmes. The basic wisdom of ICPD in recognizing the inseparability of empowerment in reproductive matters and other life spheres is ratified by the lessons learned while implementing these different approaches.

7. Sawalha, L. 1999. "Barriers of Silence: Reproductive Rights for Women in Jordan." Development: Reproductive Health and Rights: Putting Cairo Into Action 42(1): 41-46. Rome: Society for International Development.

8. Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era (DAWN). 1999. "Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era: Measuring Up Cairo." Christ Church, Barbados: Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era.

9. Pitanguy, J. 1999. "Reproductive Rights are Human Rights." Development: Reproductive Health and Rights: Putting Cairo Into Action 42(1): 11-14. Rome: Society for International Development.

10. UNFPA. 1999b. Report of the 1998 UNFPA Field Inquiry. New York: UNFPA.

11. Visaria, Leela, Shireen Jejeebhoy, and Tom Merrick. 1997. From Family Planning to Reproductive Health: Challenges Facing India. Paper presented in Session F.07 on Reproductive Health: Policy Development and Programme Implications, International Union for the Scientific Study of Population XXIII, General Population Conference, Beijing, China, 11-17 October 1997.

12. Family Care International. 1998. Implementation of ICPD Commitments on Women’s Reproductive and Sexual Health: Pakistan Country Report. New York: Family Care International.

13. UNFPA. 1999c. In Common Cause: Summary Governmental Organization Advisory Committee to UNFPA Recommendations and UNFPA Policies and Programmes: 1995, 1996, 1997. Report.

14. Ibid.

15. Ibid.

16. "Honour killings" is a term used to describe the murder, at times by family members, of women suspected of or involved in sexual activity outside of traditionally proscribed bounds. It can include the murder of women already victims of sexual violence. Social ostracism is a less extreme, but often severe, manifestation of this blaming of the victims. Such practices are also used to restrict and control women’s willing choices, even in the choice of life partners.

17. Family Care International 1998.

18. UNFPA 1999c.

19. Ibid.

20. Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era (DAWN) 1999.

21. Regional Meeting of NGOs from Latin America and the Spanish-Speaking Caribbean. 1998. ICPD+5 Regional Assessment by NGOs from Latin America and the Spanish-Speaking Caribbean. Report prepared for the ICPD+5 NGO Forum, The Hague, Netherlands, 5-6 February 1999.

22. UNFPA 1999c.

23. Ibid.

24. Ibid.

25. Bissell, S. 1999. "Grupo de Información en Reproducción Elegida (GIRE): Finding the Middle Ground for Women’s Reproductive Rights." Development: Reproductive Health and Rights: Putting Cairo Into Action 42(1): 89-90. Rome: Society for International Development.

26. Bianco, M. 1998. "Monitoring Implementation of the Cairo Programme of Action As A Women’s Citizenship Practice in Five Latin American Countries." In Confounding the Critics: Cairo, Five Years On: Conference Report: Cocoyoc, Morelos, Mexico, 15-18 November 1998, by HERA: Health, Empowerment, Rights and Accountability. 1998. New York: International Women’s Health Coalition.

27. Sadasivam, B. 1999. Risks, Rights and Reforms: A 50-Country Survey Assessing Government Actions Five Years After the International Conference on Population and Development. New York: Women’s Environment and Development Organization (WEDO).

28. Ibid.

29. UNFPA. 1999d. Partnership with Civil Society. A Review of Progress since the International Conference on Population and Development. A Report Prepared by the United Nations Population Fund for the NGO Forum on ICPD + 5, The Hague, Netherlands, 6-7 February, 1999. Technical Report No. 46. New York: UNFPA

30. Bissell, S., M.C. Mejia, and P. Mercado. 1998. "The National Forum of Women and Population Policy (Foro Nacional de Mujeres y Politícas de Población): NGO/Government Partnership for Reproductive Health in Mexico." In HERA: Health, Empowerment, Rights and Accountability 1998.

31. Abdullah, R. 1998. "Southeast Asia: Developing an Enabling Policy Environment for Building NGO-Government Relationships." In HERA: Health, Empowerment, Rights and Accountability 1998.

32. Canadian International Development Agency. 1999. CIDA’s Policy on Gender Equality. Hull, Quebec: Canadian International Development Agency.

33. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. 1999. Reaching the Goals in the S-21: Gender Equality and Health (DCD/DAC/WID[99]2), vol. 2. Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.

34. UNFPA 1999c.

35. See the report: Centre for Development and Population Activities. 1998. Grassroots to Global Networks: Improving Women’s Reproductive Health: ACCESS: Lessons Learned Conference. Report of a meeting, 18-19 June 1998. Washington D.C.: Centre for Development and Population Activities.

36. Xaba, M., et al. 1998. "Transformation of Reproductive Health Services Project: South Africa: A Collaboration Between the Women’s Health Project and Three Provincial Departments of Health and Welfare." In HERA: Health, Empowerment, Rights and Accountability 1998.

37. International Planned Parenthood Federation. 1999. IPPF and Cairo+5 Bulletin, Issue 8. London: International Planned Parenthood Federation.

38. NGO Forum and Youth Fora ICPD+5. Report of The Hague, Netherlands: 6- 7 February 1999. Hilversum, Netherlands: World Population Foundation.

39. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development 1999.

40. HealthWatch. 1998. "From Contraceptive Targets to Reproductive Health: India’s Family Planning Programme after Cairo." In HERA: Health, Empowerment, Rights and Accountability 1998.

41. UNFPA 1999c.

42. Ibid.

43. These statistics are reported in: UNFPA 1999d.

44. UNFPA 1999c.

45. Alcala, M.J., Division for Latin America and the Caribbean, UNFPA. 1999. Personal Communication.