• In the United States, wife abuse is the leading cause of injury among women of reproductive age. A study conducted in a maternity hospital in Lima, Peru, found that 90 per cent of mothers aged 12 to 14 had been raped, and that the vast majority were raped by their father, stepfather or another male relative.

• In the Russian Federation, 14,500 women were killed, and more than 56,000 injured, by their husbands in 1993.

• In the Kissi District of Kenya, 42 per cent of women report having been "beaten regularly" by their husbands.

• In India, police recorded 4,835 "dowry deaths" in 1990 (young brides are subjected to abuse by husbands and in-laws if demands are not met for money and goods from their families).

• In Jamaica, a 1994 study of 450 randomly selected school girls aged 13 to 14 found that 13 per cent had experienced attempted rape, and 3 per cent had been raped, half of them before age 12.

• In Barbados, a national survey of women and men aged 20 to 45 found that 33 per cent of women and 2 per cent of men reported having been sexually abused during childhood.

From 40 to 80 per cent of all physical abuse suffered by women is caused by a close family member. Qualitative research on sex within marital relationships conducted by the International Center for Research on Women found that women give in to their husbands' wishes for sex or certain types of sex to avoid a fight. They fear that if they don't give in, they will be accused of infidelity.

The abuse of women has an impact on many aspects of their lives, including their psychological well-being, self-esteem, bodily integrity, public participation, autonomy, sexual pleasure and the well-being of their children. Sexual abuse also has significant effects on women's reproductive health. Unwanted pregnancies that result from sexual assault may lead to unsafe or illegal abortions, which can cause serious ill-health and even death. Sexual abuse can damage self-worth, lead to earlier onset of sexual activity and increase the likelihood of unprotected sexual activity.

• A 1993 study of college students in the United States found that those who had been sexually abused were two times more likely to have multiple partners and anonymous sex; abused women were three times more likely to have been pregnant before age 18; and those who were abused were four times more likely to have engaged in prostitution.

• In Barbados, a national study of adults aged 20 to 44 found that sexual abuse was strongly linked to the number of years individuals had been sexually active before age 20; their number of partners per five-year interval; lack of condom use; and a history of sexually-transmitted diseases (STDs).

• A 1992 study of women who were pregnant or had recently given birth found that those who had been sexually abused before their first pregnancy began intercourse an average of one year earlier than those who had postponed having intercourse and considerably earlier than their non-pregnant peers. They were also much more likely to exchange sex for money, drugs or a place to stay.

Abuse during pregnancy can lead to complications, posing risks to the health of both the woman and the foetus. Battering may interfere with the frequency of prenatal care visits, posing further risks to the mother and child. The following are some of the underlying causes of violence against women:

Cultural norms that socialize women into submissive roles from early childhood;

Cultural norms of "acceptable" male behaviour (including men's "right" to dominate women, perceptions that men are superior to women, the notion that violence and virility go hand in hand, and perceptions that being masculine means being dominant and tough); and

The use of physical violence as a means of resolving conflict.

Girls and women who stray from their traditional roles may risk violence and punishment. For example, men may resort to violence when they feel a loss of control as women take on more roles outside the home.

Numerous strategies have been developed to combat this problem. These include justice system reform, treatment programmes for perpetrators and services for women who are victims of violence. Most of these initiatives have been led by women themselves. The long-term success of these strategies will hinge on men's involvement -- both in dealing with a problem that has long been swept under the carpet and in working with women to address its underlying social issues.

Most laws remain inadequate in protecting abused women or in imposing sanctions against abusers. Some laws even trap women in violent relationships. In Chile, for example, divorce is illegal even in cases of extreme violence.

In other countries, laws make the prosecution of violent men almost impossible. In most countries, marital rape and domestic abuse are simply not recognized under the law, or the extent of a woman's injuries must be very severe before they are considered crimes. Even if a man is convicted, sentences are often minimal. The maximum sentence for wife abuse in Peru, for example, is 30 days of community service. In Pakistan, four male Muslim witnesses must testify before a man can be given the most severe penalty for rape.

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