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ÝÔ#†¼}¨¼¼Q¼}¨÷#ÔÔ#†XŒïX¼¼}¨#Ôthe€inclusion€of€ageing€related€contents€in€training€programmes€on€population€andÐ xx ÐdevelopmentÔ‡ôÝ9ôXXŒïÔ݃[GÀ5žÝŒÐŽŽØÀØÀ ÐŒÝ  ÝÔ‡PôÝ9ôôôÝ9ÔÔ#†PXŒïXôPôÝ9…#ÔÔ‡P¼}¨¼XPXŒïÔÝ‚[GÀÿÝÝ  ÝÓT:ˆuM% ý Õ ­…]5 录mE "ˆuØTÓÝ‚[GÀHÝ€€ð"ðà0 Ø àÝ  ÝÔ#†¼}¨¼¼P¼}¨ç#ÔÔ#†XŒïX¼¼}¨)#Ôthe€promotion€of€specific€training€activities€on€population€ageing€for€decision„makersÐ ~~ Ðand€planners݃[GÀH·ÝŒÐ ØÀØÀ ÐŒÝ  ÝÓQ7uM% ý Õ ­…]5 录mE "ˆuØQÓÌò òawareness€creation:ó óÐ tt ÐÔ‡PXŒïXXXŒïÔÔ‡P¼}¨¼XPXŒïÔÝ‚[GÀÿÝÝ  ÝÓN:ˆuM% ý Õ ­…]5 录mE "ØNÓÝ‚[GÀÝ€€ð"ðà0 Ø àÝ  ÝÔ#†¼}¨¼¼P¼}¨_#ÔÔ#†XŒïX¼¼}¨~#Ôto€further€understanding€of€economic,€social€and€cultural€implications€of€populationÐ dd ÐageingÔ‡ôÝ9ôXXŒïÔ݃[GÀÝŒÐzzØÀØÀ ÐŒÝ  ÝÔ#†XŒïXôôÝ9ë#ÔÓT:ˆuM% ý Õ ­…]5 录mE "ˆuØTÓà0 ë àà àÔ‡TXŒïXXXŒïÔÔ‡T¼}¨¼XTXŒïÔÝ‚[GÀÿÝÝ  ÝÓT:ˆuM% ý Õ ­…]5 录mE "ˆuØTÓÝ‚[GÀÝ€€ð"ðà0ØëÀëÀàÝ  ÝÔ#†¼}¨¼¼T¼}¨Ü#ÔÔ#†XŒïX¼¼}¨û#Ôto€support€education€and€communication€activities€through€formal€and€informalÐ jj Ðchannels݃[GÀ‰ÝŒÐ ØÀØÀ ÐŒÝ  ÝÔ‡QXŒïXXXŒïÔÔ‡Q¼}¨¼XQXŒïÔÝ‚[GÀÿÝÝ  ÝÓT:ˆuM% ý Õ ­…]5 录mE "ˆuØTÓÝ‚[GÀêÝ€€ð"ðà0 Ø àÝ  ÝÔ#†¼}¨¼¼Q¼}¨¬#ÔÔ#†XŒïX¼¼}¨Ë#Ôto€integrate€issues€of€population€ageing€into€existing€IEC€programmes€in€populationÐ pp Ðand€development݃[GÀêY݌РØÀØÀ ÐŒÝ  ÝÓQ7uM% ý Õ ­…]5 录mE "ˆuØQÓÌò òevaluation€of€action€programmes:ó ó€òòUNFPA€to€make€assistance€available€„óóÐ f"f"" КÔ‡PXŒïXXXŒïÔÔ‡P¼}¨¼XPXŒïÔÝ‚[GÀÿÝÝ  ÝÓN:ˆuM% ý Õ ­…]5 录mE "ØNÓÝ‚[GÀx Ý€€ð"ðà0 Ø àÝ  ÝÔ#†¼}¨¼¼P¼}¨: #ÔÔ#†XŒïX¼¼}¨Y #Ôà0°ØÀØÀàà Ø àfor€monitoring€and€evaluating€specific€policy€interventions€by€governments€andÐ V#V## ÐNGOsÔ‡ôÝ9ôXXŒïÔ݃[GÀx á ÝŒÐl$l$$°À°À ÐŒÝ  ÝÔ‡PôÝ9ôôôÝ9ÔÔ#†PXŒïXôPôÝ9Þ!#ÔÔ‡P¼}¨¼XPXŒïÔÝ‚[GÀÿÝÝ  ÝÓT:ˆuM% ý Õ ­…]5 录mE "ˆuØTÓÝ‚[GÀ¡"Ý€€ð"ðà0 Ø àÝ  ÝÔ#†¼}¨¼¼P¼}¨@"#ÔÔ#†XŒïX¼¼}¨‚"#Ôfor€assessing€the€feasibility€and€effectiveness€of€programmes€meeting€the€challenge€ofÐ \%\%% Ðprogressive€ageing݃[GÀ¡"#݌РØÀØÀ ÐŒÝ  ÝÓQ7uM% ý Õ ­…]5 录mE "ˆuØQÓ)Hairline dF•FCFCFCFCFCFCFN@CFCF a@CFÀe@CF@n@CFÀr@CFÐ|@CF@CFCF€M@CFÀU@CFV@CFÀ_@CF€`@CFÀe@CFCF@S@CFÀU@CF@c@CF e@CFt@CF@w@CF@CF@CF @CF*@CF.@CF<@CF@@CFCF @CF$@CF0@CF3@CF€B@CFE@CFCF@P@CF@R@CF `@CF€b@CFq@CF s@CF CF D@CF O@CF K@CF ÀT@CF ÀR@CF Z@CF CF "@CF $@CF 0@CF 3@CF B@CF €F@CF CF ,@CF 2@CF 5@CF <@CF €B@CF €F@CF CF ð?CF ð?CF @CF @CF @CF @CF T@CFCF$@CF1@CF5@CFD@CFF@CFS@CFCF@CF&@CF&@CF8@CF2@CFB@CFCF@CF@CF&@CF0@CF:@CFD@CF@CFCFCFð?CFð?CF@CF@CFCFCFð?CFð?CFð?CF@CF@CFCF@CF@CF"@CF.@CF7@CF€A@CFCF@CF@CF@CF.@CF$@CF5@CFCFð?CFð?CF@CF@CF@CF@CFCF@CF@CF@CF@CF@CF"@CFCFCFCFCFCFCFð?CTable_LF((3üÝ$¤¤Ý ƒ!ÝÝ  Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú0Ú  ÚóóTable_CTable_H(3¯$££Ý ƒ!ÝÝ  ÝTable_DLevel 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5Table_E d !Ñ!€!Ñô\  `*Times New RomanTT75>?A<< Cÿÿ( ±þ$’’ò òFigure€Ú  Ú1Ú  Úó ó9999'ÿÿdxdTable_I Table_J Table_K Table_L UÝ ƒC"ÝÝ  ÝÓK7uM% ý Õ ­…]5 录mE "°œXKÓòòò òTitle:à ° àóóLocal€Level€Policy€Development€to€Deal€with€the€Consequences€of€Ð  Ðà Ø àà ° àPopulation€AgeingÌòòLocale:à ° àóóRegional€Asia€and€PacificÔ‡ôÝ9ôXXÔÐ àà ÐÔ#†XŒïXôôÝ92#ÔòòAgency:à ° àóóKorean€Institute€for€Health€and€Social€Affairs€(KIHASA)òòÐ ÐÐ ÐÌObjective:óóó óÐ °° ÐÓC€  ÿÿ$$CÓÝ‚[GÀÿÝÝ  ÝÓN:ˆuM% ý Õ ­…]5 录mE "ØNÓÝ‚[GÀZÝ€€ð"ðà0 ë àÝ  ÝÔ‡ôÝ9ôXXŒïÔto€contribute€to€the€successful€implementation€of€the€International€Conference€on€Population€andÐ    ÐDevelopment€(ICPD)€Programme€of€Action€through€the€International€Symposium€entitled€òòPopulation€andÐ  ÐDevelopment€Policies€in€Low€Fertility€Countries:€Challenges€of€Changing€Age€Structures.óóÔ#†XŒïXôôÝ9ó#Ô݃[GÀZÃÝŒÐXXë¾ë¾ ÐŒÝ  ÝÓC€  ÿÿ$$CÓÓQ7uM% ý Õ ­…]5 录mE "ˆuØQÓ(#Ã$òòÚ  Ú0Ú  Úóó (Ñ(€G&LÕ (Ñô\  `*Times New RomanTTô\  `*Times New RomanTTô\  `*Times New RomanTTô\  `*Times New RomanTT „±…À†E‡ˆ‰VŠP‹ŒDE>c$"Small Circleð"ðà0 àõŽ"%%"<à3|x \Ñ\R3Ø' Letter\Ñõÿÿÿÿd Ý ƒC"ÝÝ  ÝÓK7uM% ý Õ ­…]5 录mE "°œXKÓòòò òTitle:óóà ° àCommunity€Participation€in€Providing€Care,€Services€and€Activities€forÐ  ÐThai€à ° àà ˆ àElderlyó óÐ ðð Ðòòò òLocale:à ° àóóThailandÐ àà ÐòòAgency:à ° àóóGovernmentó óÐ ÐÐ ÐÌÔ‡ôÝ9ôXXÔòòSurvey€results€indicate€that€over€one„third€of€Thai€elderly€face€financial€difficulties,€another€third€suffer€fromÐ °° Ðhealth€problems,€and€most€have€little€knowledge€or€awareness€of€the€limited€welfare€programmes€available€toÏthem;€recognising€these€difficulties,€this€pilot€project€focuses€on€setting€up€the€Elderly€Social€Service€CentresÏon€a€pilot€basis€by€the€Department€of€Public€Welfare.ÌÔ#†XŒïXôôÝ9#ÔÌò òObjectives:ó óóóÐ ÀÀ  ÐÝ‚[GÀÿÝÝ  ÝÓN:ˆuM% ý Õ ­…]5 录mE "ØNÓÝ‚[GÀ—Ý€€ð"ðà0 ë àÝ  ÝÔ‡xXŒïXXXŒïÔÔ‡xôÝ9ôXxXŒïÔto€mobilise€and€utilise€financial,€physical€and€human€resources€within€the€community€in€order€to€promoteÐ ° °  Ðsocial€and€economic€contributions€by€the€elderly€Thai€population€to€their€own€well„beingÔ#†ôÝ9ôôxôÝ90#ÔÔ#†XŒïXôôÝ9O#ÔÔ‡ôÝ9ôXXŒïÔ݃[GÀ—݌Р   ë¾ë¾ ÐŒÝ  ÝÓC€ ÿÿ$$CÓÝ‚[GÀÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚[GÀ.Ý€€ð"ðà0 ë àÝ  ÝÔ#†XŒïXôôÝ9‰#ÔÔ‡ôÝ9ôXXŒïÔto€assess€the€current€situation,€existing€needs€and€potential€for€self„help݃[GÀ.IÝŒÐh h ë¾ë¾ ÐŒÝ  Ýà0 ë àà àÝ‚[GÀÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚[GÀaÝ€€ð"ðà0ëë¾ë¾àÝ  ÝÔ#†XŒïXôôÝ9œ#ÔÔ‡ôÝ9ôXXŒïÔto€create€awareness€and€understanding€of€the€needs€and€capabilities€of€the€elderly€among€public€welfareÐ 0 0  Ðofficers,€community€leaders€and€voluntary€workers݃[GÀa|݌Рë¾ë¾ ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚[GÀÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚[GÀÞÝ€€ð"ðà0 ë àÝ  ÝÔ#†XŒïXôôÝ9×#ÔÔ‡ôÝ9ôXXŒïÔto€develop€a€self„help€scheme€for€providing€services€to€the€elderly€in€four€selected€communities€byÐ À À  Ðestablishing€the€Elderly€Social€Service€CentresÔ#†XŒïXôôÝ9L #Ô݃[GÀÞù݌Јˆë¾ë¾ ÐŒÝ  ÝÓC€ ÿÿ$$ CÓÓQ7uM% ý Õ ­…]5 录mE "ˆuØQÓô\  `*Times New RomanTTÝ ƒ!ÝÝ  ÝÑÀ°ÑÑ„°ÑÔ‡ XÜÞXXXÔÖ€ÿÿÖÓ  ÓÓK7uM% ý Õ ­…]5 录mE "°œXKÓÔ‡ „V”„X XÜÞÔÔUKUS.,Ôò òÑ€ ü5ÑÑ€ûPÑPopulation€Ageing:€Background€ReviewÐ À ÐÔ#† XÜÞX„ „V”Â#ÔÔ‡ ¼­ì¼X XÜÞÔÌòòTechnical€and€Policy€Division,€UNFPAóóÐ >~ ÐÌó óÌÓ  ÓÔ#† XÜÞX¼ ¼­ìt#ÔòòÔ‡ ŠNw ŠX XÜÞÔViewed€as€a€whole€the€ððproblem€of€ageingðð€is€no€problem€at€all.€€It€is€only€the€pessimisticÐ € À Ðway€of€looking€at€a€great€triumph€of€civilization€(Notestein,€1954).Ô#† XÜÞX Š ŠNw #ÔóóÐ ‚  ÐÓ€ÓÓ  ÓÌÓ€ÓThis€review€is€divided€into€three€broad€parts.€€In€the€first€part,€the€paper€addresses€the€fundamentalÏdemographic€processes€which€underlie€the€structural€ageing€of€populations€and€the€outcomes€inÏterms€of€changing€age€and€gender€balances,€and€uneven€spatial€distribution.€€Limitations€ofÏchronological€age€in€defining€concepts€of€dependency€are€also€discussed.€€Part€two€addresses€theÏmajor€issues€produced€by€ageing€processes€for€individuals€and€national€governments€or€agencies€inÏthe€context€of€diverse€cultural,€social€and€economic€contexts.€€These€issues€range€from€the€personalÏneeds€and€preferences€of€older€persons€themselves€to€the€support€of€caregivers€and€agencies,€and€toÏprivate€and€public€obligations€and€funding€for€the€welfare€of€older€persons.€€Finally,€in€the€third€part,Ïthe€review€outlines€and€summarises€UNFPA€participation€in€policies€and€programmes€aimed€at€thoseÏundertaking€the€responsibility€of€promoting€the€welfare€of€older€persons€and€particularly€thoseÏprojects€adopting€the€strategic€focus€developed€in€the€post€ICPD€phase.ÌÌà ˆ àThroughout€the€review€òòolder€persons,óó€or€synonymously,€òòthe€elderly,€óóare€generally€defined€asÐ ,l Ðthose€60€years€of€age€and€over.€€However,€examples€are€cited€in€a€few€instances€from€countries€orÏstudies€which€have€adopted€65€years€of€age€as€the€threshold€for€identifying€this€group€of€people.ÌÌÓ€ÓÌÔ‡ ¼­ì¼X XÜÞÔò òÓ  Ó1à @ àà @ à€€€€€à @ˆ àDEMOGRAPHIC€PROCESSES€AND€OUTCOMESó óÐ T” ÐÓ  ÓÔ#† XÜÞX¼ ¼­ìÐ#ÔÌÓ€ÓÔ‡ ¼­ì¼X XÜÞÔò òPopulation€Age€Structureó óÐ ]  ÐÔ#† XÜÞX¼ ¼­ì  #ÔPopulation€ageing€is€increasingly€being€recognised€as€a€process€of€major€significance€for€all€societiesÐ s!³  Ðas€they€enter€the€twenty„first€century.€€In€the€second€half€of€the€twentieth€century,€age€composition,Ïas€an€integral€element€of€population€change,€tended€to€be€largely€ignored€in€the€preoccupation€withÏrapid€population€growth€and€the€issues€related€to€reducing€levels€of€mortality€and€fertility.€€DespiteÏthe€wide€range€of€implications€of€youthful€populations,€notably€in€terms€of€education,€labour€supplyÏand€unemployment,€the€main€concern€was€perceived€to€be€the€momentum€of€the€age€structure€whichÏimplied€continuing€high€numbers€of€births€even€under€conditions€of€declining€fertility€rates.ÌÌà ˆ àThe€scale€and€extent€of€population€ageing€has€seen€a€major€shift€in€focus€as€the€incipientÏageing€of€earlier€periods€and€localised€communities€has€become€an€emerging€feature€of€populationsÏworldwide.€€Earlier€reductions€in€mortality€had€a€rather€diffuse€and€uneven€impact€on€the€ageÏstructure,€favouring€infant€mortality€and€€generally€extending€expectation€of€life.€€Declining€fertility,Ð Ã+(+ ÐÑ ü5ÑÑ7€ÜÞXXdðXXdð7ÑÑ  Ññ‰ñÑ ü5ÑÑ7€ŒïXXdðXXdð7ÑÑ  ÑÑ ü5ÑÑ7€ŒïXXdðXXdð7ÑÑ  Ññ‰ñby€contrast,€because€it€focused€on€a€single€birth€cohort,€had€a€major€impact€on€the€age€structure,€andÐ À Ðpersistence€to€low€and€even€sub„replacement€levels€has€inverted€the€age€momentum€effect,Ïperpetuating€the€low€fertility€and€ageing€features€of€these€populations.€€Most€recently,€as€reductionsÏin€age„specific€mortality€rates€in€childhood€and€younger€adult€ages€have€attenuated€to€low€if€notÏirreducible€levels,€significant€improvements€in€life€expectancy€are€occurring€within€olderÏpopulations.€€This€development€has€further€accentuated€the€trend€to€expanded€numbers€andÏproportions€of€older€persons€in€the€population.ÌÌà ˆ àThe€same€basic€determinants,€mortality€and€fertility,€have€also€influenced€the€balance€betweenÏthe€sexes€at€any€given€time,€but€in€spite€of€relatively€high€sex€ratios€at€birth€and€the€reductions€inÏmortality,€higher€age„specific€mortality€rates€for€males€persist,€resulting€in€larger€numbers€andÏproportions€of€elderly€women€than€men.€€Consequently,€the€burgeoning€population€of€older€peopleÏalso€raises€important€gender€issues€particularly€in€such€areas€as€health,€income€and€welfare.ÌÌà ˆ àThe€ever„changing€age€structures€of€countries€worldwide€are€increasingly€portrayingÏcharacteristics€of€ageing€as€most€countries,€to€a€greater€or€lesser€degree,€experience€the€decliningÏfertility€rates€which€are€a€primary€determinant€of€population€ageing.€€Even€the€least€developedÏcountries€display€the€incipient€symptoms€of€this€trend€which€will€become€an€almost€universal€featureÏof€national€populations€into€the€twenty„first€century.€€More€developed€countries,€with€sustained€lowÏor€sub„replacement€fertility,€already€have€large€elderly€populations€(Golini,€1997)€and€among€otherÏcountries€now€following€this€path€the€rapidity€of€fertility€decline€is€determining€the€unprecedentedÏspeed€of€the€ageing€process€(UNFPA,€1998).ÌÌÔ‡ ¼}¨¼X XŒïÔò òMedian€ageó óÔ#† XŒïX¼ ¼}¨ä#Ô€€A€summary€measure€of€age€structure,€such€as€median€age,€reflects€the€general€shiftÐ P Ðin€age€distribution€which€has€accompanied€changes€in€fertility€levels€(Table€1).€€At€the€world€scale,Ïincreasingly€youthful€populations€(with€the€median€falling€to€less€than€22€years€of€age)€characterisedÏthe€1960s€and€1970s€during€the€phase€of€rapid€growth,€a€feature€strongly€apparent€in€less€developedÏregions€but€not€in€more€developed€regions€where€low€birth€rates€were€already€common.€€ThroughÏthe€1980s€and€1990s,€median€ages€have€been€rising€almost€everywhere€as€lower€fertility€has€becomeÏmore€and€more€widespread,€and€even€least€developed€countries€(which€are€a€subset€of€the€lessÏdeveloped€category)€with€a€median€age€of€17.9€years€in€1995,€had€joined€the€overall€trend.€€SpecificÏAfrican€countries€(Table€1)€are€still€very€youthful€although€most,€like€Algeria,€have€passed€theirÏnadir.€€In€many€countries€of€Asia€the€median€age,€as€in€Korea,€is€already€into€the€later€twenties€andÏthis€is€also€true€of€more€mature€populations€in€Latin€America€and€the€Caribbean,€such€as€ArgentinaÏand€Cuba.ÌÌà ˆ àBy€the€turn€of€the€century€the€median€age€in€countries€in€the€ò òmore€developed€regionsó ó€isÐ ¦%æ!$ Ðexpected€to€exceed€37€years€of€age,€a€level€of€maturity€characteristic€of€both€Europe€and€NorthÏAmerica€and€exceeded€by€Japan€(the€leading€example)€with€a€median€age€of€nearly€41.€€The€shift€inÏage€distribution€will€become€even€more€extensive€and€fundamental€through€the€first€two€decades€ofÏthe€twenty„first€century€as€more€developed€regions€reach€a€median€of€about€42€years€with€some€otherÏcountries€such€as€Germany€and€Italy€matching€or€overtaking€Japan.€€Even€ò òless€developed€regionsó óÐ V*–&) Ðmove,€on€average€over€the€fifty„year€period€1970€to€2020,€from€a€median€age€of€19€years€to€a€medianÏexceeding€29€years.Ð 6,v(+ Їà ˆ àAs€a€measure€of€central€tendency,€the€median€age€is€not€a€particularly€sensitive€measure€of€theÏmajor€changes€occurring€at€the€extremes€of€the€age€distribution,€since€it€is€at€the€youngest€and€oldestÏages€that€the€greatest€impact€occurs.€€As€younger€cohorts€tend€to€become€proportionately€(and€in€theÏlonger„term€even€numerically)€smaller€than€previously,€adult€groups€of€working€age€expand,€stabiliseÏand€even€shrink€as€the€peristaltic€effect€of€successive€birth€cohorts€moves€through€to€expand€olderÏage€groups.ÌÌÔ‡ ¼}¨¼X XŒïÔò òFunctional€age€groupsó óÔ#† XŒïX¼ ¼}¨¤ #Ô€€In€the€period€1970„2020€the€child€share€of€the€worldððs€total€populationÐ P  Ðis€expected€to€have€reduced€by€more€than€twelve€percentage€points,€three„fifths€of€that€differenceÏaccruing€to€the€15„59€age€groups€and€the€remainder€being€reflected€in€the€expansion€of€the€elderlyÏage€groups.€€Consequently,€as€early€as€2020,€the€population€60€years€of€age€and€over€is€expected€toÏexceed€13€percent€of€the€total€world€population€(Table€2).€€In€terms€of€absolute€ò ònumericaló ó€growthÐ 6v  Ðthe€child€population€is€expected€to€have€grown€by€545€million,€or€about€39€percent,€1970„2020,€theÏworking„age€adult€population€by€2,730€million€(136€percent),€and€the€60€and€over€population€by€694Ïmillion€or€223€percent,€to€reach€a€total€of€about€1,005€million€older€persons.ÌÌà ˆ àThe€shift€in€age€distribution€continues€to€be€greatest€in€the€low€fertility€countries€comprisingÏthe€ò òmore€developed€regionsó ó€where€the€working„age€population€already€comprises€about€62€percentÐ Ö Ðof€the€total€and€older€persons€more€than€18€percent€(1995).€€By€2020€the€working„age€share€will€haveÏdeclined€to€about€58€percent€and€those€aged€60€and€over€will€comprise€one„quarter€of€the€population,Ïas€demonstrated€by€Europe€and€North€America,€the€two€major€continental€regions€contributing€toÏthe€more€developed€regions.€€By€2020,€the€ò òless€developed€regionsó ó€will€also€have€about€62€percentÐ –Ö Ðof€their€populations€in€the€adult€working€ages,€but€the€child€component€will€still€exceed€a€quarter€ofÏthe€total€and€the€elderly€about€11€percent€„€less€than€half€the€comparable€proportions€in€the€moreÏdeveloped€regions.€€Within€this€group€of€less€developed€regions,€in€2020,€the€ò òleast€developedÐ f¦ Ðcountriesó ó€are€expected€to€have€a€functional€age€distribution€similar€to€that€of€the€total€worldÐ V– Ðpopulation€fifty€years€earlier,€in€1970.ÌÌà ˆ àThe€spatial€distribution€of€the€worldððs€population€among€the€major€world€regions€is€even€moreÏsignificant€in€terms€of€the€implications€for€the€provision€of€basic€human€needs.€€In€1970,€the€peopleÏin€ò òless€developed€regionsó ó€already€comprised€about€73€percent€of€the€worldððs€total€population€andÐ  F Ðthis€share€had€risen€to€about€79€percent€in€1995,€and€can€be€expected€to€reach€about€84€percent€byÏ2020.€€Consequently,€irrespective€of€the€proportional€age€distribution€òòwithin€óóregions,€the€lessÐ æ!&  Ðdeveloped€regions€have€more€children,€more€adults€of€working€age€and€more€older€persons€than€theÏmore€developed€regions€by€a€wide€margin€and€the€share€of€all€groups€will€continue€to€increase.€ÏSpecifically,€in€1995,€the€less€developed€regions€had€87€percent€of€the€children,€78€percent€of€thoseÏof€working€age,€and€61€percent€of€the€elderly.€€By€2020,€this€share€is€expected€to€increase€to€89Ïpercent,€85€percent€and€70€percent€respectively,€with€major€implications€for€the€provision€ofÏeducation,€productive€work€and€support€of€the€aged,€in€addition€to€such€basic€needs€as€food,€clothingÏand€housing.ÌÌà ˆ àIn€view€of€this€situation,€an€assessment€of€implied€needs€and€appropriate€policy€measures€forÏparticular€age€categories€of€the€population€must€focus€particularly€on€the€situation€in€the€countriesÏcomprising€the€less€developed€regions.€€Furthermore,€the€overwhelmingly€predominant€share€of€theÐ 6,v(+ Ðworldððs€population€at€all€ages€and€the€issues€and€problems€associated€with€each€requires€that,€evenÏwhere€one€age€category€is€singled€out€for€analysis€and€evaluation€of€special€needs,€policy€decisionsÏmust€adopt€a€more€holistic€view,€and€particular€subgroups€and€remedial€measures€must€beÏresynthesised€with€those€of€the€wider€community€to€promote€and€support€ðða€society€for€òòallóó€agesðð.Ð Ð ÐÌÔ‡ ¼}¨¼X XŒïÔò òOlder€Personsó óÐ p° Ðò òGrowth€of€older€populationsÔ#† XŒïX¼ ¼}¨ü/#Ô€€ó óGiven€the€major€and€increasingly€universal€shift€towards€olderÐ † Æ Ðpopulations€it€is€hardly€surprising€to€discover€that€the€scale€and€speed€of€change€in€populations€atÏthese€ages€is€exceptional.€€Over€the€last€25€years€to€1995,€in€all€but€the€least€developed€countries€theÏpopulation€aged€ò ò60€and€overó ó€has€been€increasing€at,€or€faster€than,€the€total€population€growth€rateÐ | ¼  Ð(Table€3).€€If€the€two€largely€overlapping€regions€of€the€least€developed€countries€and€Africa€areÏexcluded,€the€growth€rate€of€the€elderly€60€years€of€age€and€over€everywhere€has€been€much€moreÏrapid€than€for€the€total€populations,€and€in€the€most€extreme€case,€that€of€Europe,€the€rate€was€threeÏtimes€as€fast.ÌÌà ˆ àIn€the€period€1995„2020,€the€difference€between€the€60€years€of€age€and€over€and€total€growthÏrates€is€expected€to€increase€substantially.€€At€the€world€scale,€the€growth€rate€for€the€elderly€60€andÏover€is€double€the€general€rate.€€In€the€less€developed€regions,€including€Africa€and€Latin€AmericaÏ&€Caribbean,€the€average€annual€rate€is€in€excess€of€three€percent€„€again,€as€much€as€double€theÏoverall€growth€rate.€€In€regions€where€the€total€growth€is€very€low,€the€elderly€component€is€growingÏat€many€times€the€total€population€rate.ÌÌà ˆ àEven€more€noteworthy,€however,€is€the€rate€of€growth€in€the€older€aged€population,€ò ò80€yearsÐ ¬ì Ðand€overó ó.€€Rates€for€these€ages€worldwide€exceeded€three€percent,€1970„1995,€reflecting€increasedÐ œÜ Ðlife€expectancy€for€the€oldest€ages€which€has€already€been€making€an€impact€over€a€relativelyÏsustained€period.€€In€the€ò òmore€developed€regionsó ó,€notably€Europe€and€North€America,€these€rapidÐ |¼ Ðgrowth€rates€for€the€80€and€over€populations€drop€by€fifty€percent€through€the€1995„2020€period,€butÏin€other€regions€rates€of€increase€in€the€oldest€populations€will€be€maintained€at€similar€high€levelsÏto€those€for€1970„1995€(Table€3).ÌÌÔ‡ ¼}¨¼X XŒïÔò òSex€ratiosó óÔ#† XŒïX¼ ¼}¨K8#Ô€€Despite€the€substantial€growth€trends€for€both€sexes,€the€sex€ratios€continue€to€reflectÐ , l Ðthe€established,€strong€predominance€of€women€at€all€older€ages€(Table€4).€€The€sex€ratios€òòwithinóó€theÐ B!‚ Ðelderly€age€groups€are€lowest€in€those€regions€with€the€largest€and€longest€established€proportionsÏof€older€persons.€€For€age€ò ò60€and€overó ó,€the€ò òmore€developed€regionsó ó€with€persistent€low€fertility€andÐ "#b! Ðrelatively€large€older€populations€averaged€sex€ratios€as€low€as€645€males€per€thousand€females€(inÏEurope)€in€1970,€while€North€America€had€somewhat€higher€ratios€at€about€760€males€per€thousandÏfemales.€€A€modest€recovery€in€the€proportions€of€males€is€expected€to€occur€in€more€developedÏregions€by€2020€to€at€least€725€per€thousand€(in€Europe)€and€to€levels€above€800€elsewhere.€€In€1970,Ïò òless€developed€regionsó ó€collectively€recorded€rates€around€880€males€per€thousand€females€and€wereÐ Ò'$& Ðexpected€to€maintain€these€through€to€2020.ÌÌà ˆ àSex€ratios€for€populations€aged€ò ò70€and€overó ó€reflected€the€increasing€preponderance€of€womenÐ ¢*â&) Ðat€these€ages€with€levels,€particularly€in€more€developed€regions,€about€100€points€per€thousandÏlower€than€for€the€corresponding€year€for€the€population€60€and€over.€€The€difference€in€sex€ratiosÐ ‚,Â(+ Ðbetween€the€60€and€over€and€70€and€over€populations€tends€to€be€smaller€for€the€less€developedÏregions.€€At€ages€ò ò80€and€overó ó,€the€world€average€is€below€600€males€for€every€thousand€females.€Ð °ð ÐIn€the€ò òmore€developed€regionsó ó€women€in€1970€outnumbered€men€by€two€to€one€and,€with€someÐ  à Ðoscillation,€this€pattern€will€persist€to€2020.€€In€the€ò òless€developed€regionsó ó€a€1970€ratio€of€about€750Ð Ð Ðhas€dropped€about€100€points€but€is€likely€to€maintain€this€level€subsequently€at€around€650€malesÏper€thousand€females.ÌÌÔ‡ ¼}¨¼X XŒïÔò òOverall€Demographic€Appraisaló óÐ P  ÐÔ#† XŒïX¼ ¼}¨L@#ÔIn€general,€the€established€pattern€of€substantially€larger€numbers€of€women€in€older€populations€willÐ f ¦ Ðcontinue€and€become€progressively€greater€as€cohorts€advance€into€older€ages.€€Over€time,€the€UnitedÏNations€(1997b)€projections€suggest€that,€for€the€ò òmore€developed€regionsó ó,€sex€ratios€among€olderÐ F †  Ðpopulations€may€have€reached€their€nadir€towards€the€end€of€the€twentieth€century€and€might€beÏexpected€to€rise€again€in€the€following€decades,€reverting€to€levels€similar€to€those€pertaining€in€theÏ1970s.€€In€the€ò òless€developed€regionsó ó,€sex€ratios€had€not€sunk€so€low€and,€entering€the€twenty„firstÐ V  Ðcentury,€are€more€likely€to€remain€at€levels€characteristic€of€the€1990s.€€Women€therefore€compriseÏby€far€the€greater€proportion€of€older€populations€at€any€advanced€age,€and€although€the€òòproportionsóóÐ ö6 Ðof€elderly€women€are€largest€in€more€developed€regions,€much€larger€òònumbersóó€of€elderly€women€areÐ æ& Ðlocated€in€less€developed€regions.ÌÌÔ‡ ¼}¨¼X XŒïÔò òSpatial€variationsó óÔ#† XŒïX¼ ¼}¨éD#Ô€€The€spatial€distribution€of€the€elderly,€as€the€end€product€of€the€differentialÐ ¶ö Ðgrowth€rates€previously€discussed,€reflects€not€only€the€burgeoning€numbers€of€older€persons€in€lessÏdeveloped€regions€but€also€the€varying€degrees€of€concentration€and€predominance€of€the€femaleÏcomponent€of€the€aged.€€Already€by€1970,€the€population€aged€ò ò60€and€overó ó€in€less€developedÐ ¬ì Ðregions€was€distinctly€larger€than€in€more€developed€regions€although€the€female€component€wasÏabout€the€same€(87€million€in€each€of€the€two€regions;€Table€5).€€By€2020,€the€large€numbers€of€olderÏpersons€in€less€developed€regions€will€not€only€be€substantially€more€than€double€those€in€moreÏdeveloped€countries€but€will€comprise€over€40€million€more€women€than€men.€€Over€80€percent€ofÏthe€elderly,€both€male€and€female,€in€less€developed€regions€will€then€be€located€in€Asia€(Neville,Ï1992)ÌÌà ˆ àIn€the€1990s,€the€population€aged€ò ò80€and€overó ó€is€still€concentrated€in€more€developed€regions,Ð , l Ðand€it€is€the€large€female€numbers€which€account€for€this€(Table€5).€€By€2020,€however,€theÏpredominance€of€the€less€developed€regions€as€the€main€locale€of€the€elderly€will€have€prevailed€atÏthese€ages€also,€for€both€men€and€women.€€Again,€at€these€older€ages,€most€of€the€elderly€identifiedÏas€living€in€less€developed€regions€will€be€in€Asia:€the€projections€indicate€this€concentration€to€beÏabout€88€percent€for€each€sex.€€In€fact,€it€is€anticipated€that€more€than€half€of€the€males€and€about€46Ïpercent€of€the€females€aged€80€and€over€worldwide,€will€be€living€in€Asia.ÌÌÔ‡ ¼}¨¼X XŒïÔò òLimitations€of€age€as€an€indicatorÔ#† XŒïX¼ ¼}¨—K#Ô€€ó óWhile€the€preceding€discussion€has€adopted€a€series€ofÐ ¬'ì#& Ðsimple€statistical€measures€to€assist€in€identifying€the€broad€parameters€of€the€older€populationsÏdistributed€worldwide,€both€in€the€recent€past€and€for€the€immediate€future,€that€such€an€analysis€isÏonly€a€first€step€in€determining€the€fundamental€character€and€needs€of€older€persons.€€As€a€surrogateÏfor€identifying€the€particular€needs€of€a€major€cluster€of€people€within€a€population,€age€provides€aÏrather€crude€tool.€€Although€certain€problems€and€needs€are€strongly€associated€with€age,€groupsÐ ‚,Â(+ Ðdefined€by€age€can€be€extremely€heterogeneous€in€terms€of€educational€attainment,€health€status,Ïincome€and€many€other€major€variables.€€Just€as€there€is€a€common€element€together€with€a€diversityÏof€needs€for€the€thirty„year€age€category€0„30€years€(which€would€never€be€treated€as€a€singleÏhomogeneous€unit),€so€too€there€is€immense€heterogeneity€in€the€characteristics€and€needs€ofÏpopulations€aged€60„90€and€over.€€Recognition€of€this€diversity€is€essential€if€the€mainstream€of€olderÏpeople€is€to€achieve€a€satisfying€quality€of€life€through€active€ageing€while€the€most€marginalisedÏand€needy€are€simultaneously€and€effectively€included€in€relevant€policy€decisions€and€appropriateÏprovisions.ÌÌà ˆ àFor€similar€reasons€the€notional€concept€of€the€demographic€dependency€ratio,€in€whichÏchildren€and€older€adults,€together€defined€as€dependents,€are€offset€against€those€ostensibly€ofÏworking€ages,€is€extremely€unsatisfactory€(Dean,€1993).€€Differences€between€countries€in€age€ofÏcommencement€and€curtailment€of€participation€in€economic€activity€vary€widely,€the€definition€andÏvariable€nature€of€work€undertaken€at€all€ages€and€the€heterogeneity€within€such€broad€age€categoriesÏtotally€defeat€any€useful€interpretation.€€Additionally,€the€meeting€of€needs€of€the€elderly€by€theirÏown€endeavours,€by€voluntary€activities€of€community€or€family€caregivers€often€withoutÏremuneration,€confuses€more€than€it€clarifies€and€defaults€to€a€dependency€status€not€onlyÏinappropriate€and€unacceptable€to€many€older€persons€but€unreliable€and€misleading€in€its€reflectionÏof€reality.ÌÌÌÓ€ÓÓ  ÓÔ‡ ¼}¨¼X XŒïÔò ò2à@..à€€€€€CULTURAL,€SOCIAL€AND€ECONOMIC€ISSUESó óÔ#† XŒïX¼ ¼}¨¯T#ÔÐ p° ÐÓ€ÓÓ  ÓÌÌÔ‡ ¼}¨¼X XŒïÔò òMarital€Status€and€Living€Arrangementsó óÐ ñ1 ÐÔ#† XŒïX¼ ¼}¨iU#ÔThe€pattern€of€marital€status€of€older€men€is€very€different€from€that€of€older€women€throughout€theÐ G Ðworld.€€Although€widowhood€is€increasingly€probable€for€both€sexes€as€age€advances,€married€menÏusually€outnumber€widowers€even€at€quite€advanced€ages.€€By€contrast,€women€are€much€more€likelyÏto€be€widows,€and€women€of€widowed€status€commonly€outnumber€married€women€at€older€agesÏin€many€societies€although,€in€the€case€of€England€and€Wales€in€1991,€for€example,€this€did€notÏoccur€until€the€age€of€73€(Grundy,€1998).€€The€reasons€for€this€gender€disparity€are€readily€apparent.€ÏWomen€have€a€greater€life€expectancy€than€men,€and€in€most€societies€are€likely€to€be€younger€thanÏtheir€spouses,€increasing€the€probability€of€surviving€them.€€Similarly,€in€most€societies,€men€areÏmore€likely€than€women€to€remarry€„€partly€because€the€paucity€of€available€males€reduces€the€optionÏof€remarriage€for€women.€€In€addition,€significant€differences€occur€from€one€society€to€another€inÏnumbers€never€marrying€or€divorced,€and€this€component€is€a€significant€subgroup€among€olderÏpersons€in€some€instances.ÌÌà ˆ àAlthough€marital€status€provides€some€indication€of€family€relationships,€of€greaterÏsignificance€for€the€elderly€is€the€extent€to€which€generations€are€coresident.€€With€escalating€lifeÏexpectancy€and€the€increasingly€common€occurrence€of€four€generation€families€in€many€societies,Ïespecially€in€Asia,€North€America€and€Europe,€expectations€that€traditional€family€practices€in€caringÏfor€the€elderly€would€be€expanded€and€elaborated€might€well€be€anticipated.€€For€example,€in€FranceÐ ÷+7(+ ÐÑûPÑÑ„„ÑÑÀÀÑÑ  Ññ‰ñÑûPÑÑ„„ÑÑÀÀÑÑ  ÑÑûPÑÑ„„ÑÑÀÀÑÑ  Ññ‰ñ26€percent€of€the€women€born€in€1930€were€part€of€a€four„generation€family€at€the€age€of€60€andÏeven€the€least€favourable€survivorship€hypothesis€inflates€this€proportion€to€33€percent€in€theÏforeseeable€future€(Pennec,€1997).€€Even€where€three€generations€are€still€predominant,Ïpostponement€of€childbearing€by€career€women€in€low€fertility€countries€tends€to€result€in€theirÏmoving€in€short€order€from€a€situation€of€dependent€teenage€children€to€dependent€elderly€parents.€ÏDespite€the€apparent€advantages€of€multigenerational€coresidence,€in€most€low€fertility€societies€theÏtrend€is€towards€separate€lifestyles€and€greater€independence.ÌÌà ˆ àHistorically,€for€many€cultures€in€Asia,€multigenerational€accommodation€arrangements€haveÏbeen€integral€to€social€organisation€whereas€this€has€been€less€common€in€Europe,€although€someÏconsider€that€the€differences€may€have€been€overstated€(Goody,€1996).€€In€China€and€Korea,€forÏexample,€older€people€most€commonly€lived€with€a€married€eldest€son,€or€failing€that,€with€anotherÏmarried€son€or€an€unmarried€child.€€However,€the€current€evidence€suggests€that€in€countries€whereÏthis€pattern€of€living€with€adult€children€has€been€widespread€it€is€undergoing€rapid€modification.€ÏWhile€the€òòformóó€of€living€arrangements,€whether€coresident€or€independent€is€often€addressed,€whatÐ à  Ðis€commonly€neglected€is€determination€of€the€òòfunctionóó€of€coresidence€or€non„coresidence.€Ð Ð ÐCoresidence€may€signify€support€flowing€from€the€elderly€parents€to€their€offspring€in€the€form€ofÏchildcare,€shopping€and€meal€preparation€rather€than€assistance€to€the€older€generation.€€WithÏincreases€in€income,€non„coresidence€may€signify€a€greater€preference€for€privacy€and€independenceÏon€the€part€of€parents€and€adult€children€(Hermalin,€1997).ÌÌà ˆ àIn€Korea,€the€proportion€of€older€people€living€in€households€composed€only€of€the€elderlyÏrose€from€23€percent€in€1985€to€42€percent€in€1995€(Chung,€1998).€€Results€of€the€1997€KoreanÏNational€Fertility€and€Family€Health€Survey€indicated€that€over€70€percent€of€women€said€that€theyÏdid€not€want€to€coreside€with€their€children€in€old€age,€whereas€under€eight€percent€said€they€did.€ÏOn€the€other€hand,€somewhat€unusually,€a€very€large€proportion€indicated€that€they€would€preferÏinstitutional€care€to€home€care€in€old€age€(Lee,€1998).€€Whether€practice€will€actually€correspond€toÏthis€expression€of€intent€remains€to€be€seen.ÌÌà ˆ àAlthough€coresidence€continues€to€be€the€core€of€support€relationships€between€parents€andÏadult€offspring€in€China,€levels€of€coresidence€themselves€have€declined€over€time.€€Despite€mostÏparents€still€living€with€one€of€their€adult€offspring,€non„coresident€children€maintain€high€levels€ofÏface„to„face€contact€with€parents€and€provide€help€on€a€regular€basis€even€in€instances€where€theÏparents€live€with€another€child.€€There€is€also€a€bias€toward€living€closer€to€sons€„€comparable€to€theÏgender€bias€previously€found€for€coresidence€(Bian,€Logan€and€Bian,€1998).€€This€study€ofÏintergenerational€relationships,€undertaken€in€two€major€Chinese€cities,€found€no€effects€of€parentsððÏage€or€health€on€proximity,€contact,€or€help€but€rather,€suggested€that€support€of€parents€representsÏnot€so€much€parental€needs€as€filial€obligation.€€Some€kinds€of€help,€such€as€financial€aid€to€parentsÏwith€no€pension€or€only€a€small€retirement€income,€have€a€strong€instrumental€component,€butÏweekly€visits,€a€token€gift€or€regular€help€with€some€aspect€of€shopping€or€household€care€can€beÏmore€symbolic€than€instrumental,€expressing€publicly€the€ideology€of€respect€and€filial€piety.ÌÌà ˆ àFor€the€Chinese,€major€adjustments€still€lie€in€the€future€as€the€Chinese€family€is€enmeshed€inÏprocesses€for€which€impacts€remain€to€be€assessed.€€The€first€cohort€of€the€one„child€family€era€isÐ ,P(+ Ðnow€reaching€adulthood,€and€parents€and€children€will€gradually€begin€to€experience€theÏconsequences.€€Certainly€gender€preferences€are€unsustainable€if€parents€have€only€a€daughter.€ÏChoices€will€also€have€to€be€made€as€to€whether€parents€live€with€their€only€adult€child€or€accept€theÏcontemporary€trend€away€from€coresidence,€and€live€apart€from€their€offspring.€€The€adjustmentsÏto€family€arrangements€for€ageing€parents€are€likely€to€be€as€fundamental€as€the€economic€and€socialÏadjustments€to€low€fertility€levels€achieved€by€the€one„child€family€policy.ÌÌà ˆ àJapan,€represents€a€particularly€significant€example€because,€while€perceived€to€be€sharingÏmany€demographic€and€economic€features€with€the€more€developed€societies€of€Europe€and€NorthÏAmerica,€in€matters€of€family€demography€it€is€commonly€believed€to€share€more€with€the€newlyÏindustrialising€societies€of€East€Asia.€€Certainly,€the€tradition€of€support€within€the€home€has€notÏbeen€entirely€lost€and€attempts€are€being€made€to€encourage€the€retention€of€this€system.€€Reportedly,Ïincreasing€numbers€of€older€men€and€especially€older€women€are€living€alone€or,€in€much€smallerÏand€quite€stable€numbers,€in€hospitals€or€institutions.€€The€proportion€of€older€persons€in€one„personÏand€couple€only€households€is€on€the€rise€but€is€still€lower€than€in€other€countries€in€more€developedÏregions€(Kojima,€1998).€€Of€the€population€aged€65€and€over,€56€percent€lived€in€three„generationÏhouseholds€as€recently€as€1972,€but€this€proportion€had€fallen€to€33€percent€by€1995€(Ogawa€andÏRetherford,€1997).€€However,€as€these€authors€note,€population€ageing,€the€growth€of€the€socialÏsecurity€system,€and€the€weakening€of€family€care€of€the€elderly€in€Japan€conform€to€a€patternÏcommon€to€all€countries€that€modernise€and€undergo€demographic€transition.ÌÌà ˆ àJapan€differs€in€the€speed€and€extent€of€population€ageing€and€the€initial€strength€of€traditionalÏjoint€family€arrangements€and€values€of€filial€piety.€€Although€changes€in€values€have€tended€to€lagÏbehind€changes€in€underlying€economic€and€social€conditions,€theory€and€evidence€suggest€that€theÏgovernmentððs€efforts€to€shift€some€of€the€responsibility€for€caring€for€the€elderly€from€the€socialÏsecurity€system€back€to€families€will€not€be€very€successful.€€The€reasons€are€familiar€in€theÏexperience€of€other€developed€countries:€declines€in€coresidence,€increases€in€womenððs€educationÏand€full„time€paid€employment,€increases€in€the€ratio€of€impaired€elderly€to€available€caregivers,€andÏweakening€values€of€filial€piety.ÌÌà ˆ àBy€contrast,€in€Thailand,€where€the€preference€for€living€with€adult€sons€is€less€pronouncedÏ(and€is€actually€higher€for€married€daughters),€widespread€abandonment€of€obligations€to€ThaiÏelderly€by€their€children€or€kin€is€viewed€as€unlikely,€although€the€impact€of€rapid€fertility€declineÏand€socio„economic€change€may€modify€the€situation€in€the€future€(Knodel€and€Napaporn,€1997).€ÏIn€Singapore,€the€government€considers€that€primary€responsibility€for€older€people€still€lies€withÏthe€family€and€various€schemes€have€been€introduced€to€encourage€this.€€Public€housing€provisionsÏnow€include€granny€flats,€multigenerational€accommodation€(in€public€housing€previously€restrictedÏto€nuclear€families€only),€or€priority€for€elderly€parents€to€live€in€close€proximity€(Yap,€1998).€€AÏ1995€survey€revealed€that€there€had€been€no€decline€in€the€proportion€of€elderly€coresiding€with€atÏleast€one€child.€€Among€those€aged€60€and€over,€more€than€85€percent€lived€with€one€of€theirÏchildren€(Chan,€1997).Ìà ˆ àÌà ˆ àThe€experience€of€some€societies€in€western€Europe,€although€significantly€different€in€theÏevolution€of€marriage€practice€and€family€structures€from€countries€in€Asia,€is€producing€a€somewhatÐ ,P(+ Ðsimilar€result€to€some€of€the€more€affluent€Asian€societies€where€coresidence€appears€to€be€decliningÏ„€ever€larger€numbers€of€older€persons€living€alone,€with€women€much€more€affected€than€men€atÏthe€oldest€ages.€€The€increasing€autonomy€of€older€people€is€illustrated€by€the€case€of€France€whereÏthe€proportion€of€people€aged€60€and€over€who€are€living€on€their€own€(with€a€spouse€or€alone)€hadÏrisen€to€85€percent€by€1990,€and€fewer€and€fewer€older€people€are€living€in€a€household€headed€byÏsomeone€else€(Toulemon,€1997).ÌÌà ˆ àThe€main€change€in€adult€family€life€in€France€is€the€decreasing€proportion€of€married€peopleÏat€all€ages.€€Since€the€early€1970s,€cohabitation€without€marriage€has€emerged€as€the€common€wayÏof€union€formation,€as€nine€out€of€ten€unions€now€begin€without€marriage€(Toulemon,€1998).€€ThisÏarrangement€is€not€confined€to€young€adults,€but€is€occurring€among€the€over„60s€where€cohabitationÏmay€also€take€more€novel€forms€such€as€intermittent€or€alternating€cohabitation.€€Such€conjugalÏlifestyles€help€resolve€problems€specific€to€the€older€generation:€the€existence€of€children€andÏgrandchildren€with€whom€they€wish€to€remain€on€good€terms;€ownership€of€property,€especiallyÏhouses€to€which€the€elderly€are€particularly€attached;€and€the€existence€of€a€past€that€must€neitherÏbe€forgotten€nor€disowned€(Caradec,€1997).ÌÌÔ‡ ¼}¨¼X XŒïÔò òEmployment€and€Retirementó óÐ °ð ÐÔ#† XŒïX¼ ¼}¨s€#ÔIssues€relating€to€age€of€retirement€and€retention€of€older€workers€in€the€labour€force€have€beenÐ Æ Ðwidely€and€frequently€discussed€in€many€of€the€societies€which€comprise€the€ò òmore€developedÐ ¶ö Ðregionsó ó.€€There€is€a€considerable€degree€of€consistency€in€addressing€the€ageing€challenges€that€haveÐ ¦æ Ðemerged€in€more€developed€regions.€€The€general€consensus€points€to€the€desirability€of€increasingÏthe€effective€age€of€retirement€by€removing€barriers€to€working€in€later€life,€preferably€by€enablingÏwithdrawal€on€a€gradual€basis,€involving€more€flexible€rules€and€more€gradual€transitions€such€asÏthose€provided€for€by€participation€in€the€part„time€labour€force.€€The€nature€and€scale€of€support€ofÏan€older€population€depends€on€the€extent€to€which€the€population€in€general,€and€older€workers€inÏparticular,€participate€in€the€labour€market.€€Higher€employment€rates€reduce€fiscal€pressuresÏassociated€with€the€financing€of€pensions€and€health€care€while€also€increasing€real€incomes€for€theÏpopulation€as€a€whole,€significantly€contributing€to€the€difficult€policy€trade„off€between€higher€taxesÏand€lower€benefits€(OECD,€1997).ÌÌà ˆ àUnemployment€rates€are€relatively€high€in€most€more€developed€regions€and€many€countriesÏhave€recorded€a€significant€decline€in€labour€force€participation€of€older€workers,€particularly€males.€ÏWhereas€most€of€these€countries€in€the€mid„1970s€recorded€participation€rates€for€male€workers€agedÏ55€to€64€at€levels€from€70€percent€to€over€80€percent,€by€the€mid„1990s€France,€the€Netherlands€andÏGermany€were€recording€rates€of€about€40€percent,€Italy€was€as€low€as€30€percent€(a€relatively€smallÏdrop€from€just€over€40€percent€participation),€but€other€countries€such€as€Australia,€Canada,€Ireland,ÏSpain,€the€United€States€and€the€United€Kingdom€were€around€60€percent.€€By€contrast,€Sweden€andÏNorway,€at€over€70€percent,€had€declined€only€a€few€percentage€points€from€their€1970s€levels.€€TheÏhighest€and€most€consistent€over€the€twenty„year€period€was€Japan€where€participation€rates€forÏmales€aged€55„64€had€remained€at€over€85€percent,€despite€the€adoption€only€in€1998€of€an€earlierÏdecision€to€adopt€60€as€the€standard€age€of€retirement.€€The€participation€rate€for€males€65€and€overÏwas€reported€to€have€dropped€to€37€percent€by€the€mid„1990s,€whereas€the€proportion€of€women€65Ïand€over€economically€active€in€1995€was€only€about€16€percent.€€Slightly€less€than€60€percent€ofÐ 6,v(+ Ðboth€men€and€women€combined€were€active€as€either€self„employed€or€family€workers€(Westley,Ï1998;€Kojima,€1998).ÌÌà ˆ àA€recurrent€and€major€explanation€for€falling€employment€is€that€employers€appear€to€beÏreluctant€to€employ€or€even€to€retain€older€workers€on€the€grounds€that€their€skills€and€competenciesÏare€obsolete,€ageing€impairs€performance€and€reduces€productivity,€and€seniority„based€remunerationÏraises€the€cost€of€employing€older€workers.€€Evidence€for€these€assertions€is€mixed,€and€with€earlyÏretirement€programmes€targeted€at€older€workers,€employees€reactions€may€make€them€self„¼fulfilling.€€Measures€of€productivity€suggest€that€what€older€workers€may€lack€in€response€to€testsÏof€complex€memory€and€physical€reaction€may€be€more€than€compensated€for€by€experience€effectsÏand€work€habits.ÌÌà ˆ àAnother€reason€for€the€decline€in€participation€rates€of€older€workers€is€an€increased€preferenceÏfor€retirement,€but€other€factors€such€as€retirement€policies,€social€security€systems€and€labourÏdemand€are€likely€to€be€of€greater€fundamental€importance€as€the€underlying€factors€influencing€theÏactual€timing€of€retirement.€€In€the€United€States,€the€accelerated€decrease€in€labour€forceÏparticipation€corresponds€roughly€to€the€introduction€of€Social€Security€and€the€adoption€ofÏemployer„provided€pension€plans€which€have€both€been€shown€to€constitute€substantial€incentivesÏto€leave€the€labour€force€early€(Wise,€1997).€€In€addition,€sub„optimal€health€can€also€be€aÏpredisposing€element€in€favour€of€retirement€in€the€United€States,€whereas€personal€savings,€becauseÏthey€are€relatively€low,€do€not€encourage€retirement.ÌÌà ˆ àProvisions€of€pension€schemes€and€the€presence€of€early€retirement€policies€often€reduceÏincentives€to€prolong€participation€even€when€individuals€may€wish€to€postpone€their€departure€fromÏthe€labour€market€or€to€have€a€more€flexible€transition€from€work€to€retirement.€€Despite€theÏevidence€suggesting€that€there€is€no€relationship€between€the€fall€in€participation€rates€of€olderÏworkers€and€recorded€unemployment€(OECD,€1997),€early€retirement€is€often€encouraged€in€theÏexpectation€that€it€will€improve€job€prospects€for€the€young€unemployed,€and€many€EuropeanÏcountries€have€so„called€ððunemployment€pensionsðð€which€function€as€early€retirement€schemes.€ÏHowever,€withdrawal€of€older€workers€from€the€labour€force€does€not€necessarily€result€in€directÏsubstitution€of€younger€workers,€and€even€if€suitable€replacements€can€be€found€the€older€workersÏmay€well€undertake€alternative€employment€elsewhere.€€In€situations€where€social€security€benefitsÏare€sufficiently€generous€to€discourage€active€searching€for€another€job€the€economy€is€then€deprivedÏof€valuable€human€resources.€€The€provisions€of€social€security€schemes€may€create€a€highÏreservation€wage€for€older€workers€and€instead€of€reducing€unemployment,€forced€early€retirementÏmay€aggravate€the€problem€over€the€longer€term,€as€early€retirement€is€often€financed€by€higherÏtaxes.ÌÌà ˆ àIn€an€alternative€approach,€invalidity€and€sickness€benefits€have€also€been€used€in€manyÏcountries€as€surrogate€schemes€for€early€retirement€plans,€particularly€when€unemployment€ratesÏhave€been€high.€€Such€measures€not€only€affect€current€flows€into€what€is€effectively€earlyÏretirement,€but€also€have€an€impact€on€the€behaviour€of€future€cohorts€of€older€workers€by€raisingÏtheir€expectations€of€an€early€exit€from€the€labour€force€and€possibly€reducing€their€current€workÏeffort.Ð ,P(+ Їà ˆ àAn€increase€in€the€age€of€entitlement€to€retirement€benefits€in€order€to€align€work€incentivesÏwith€fiscal€provisions€would€have€a€direct€impact€on€the€labour€market.€€In€some€instances€pensionÏbenefits€are€not€actuarially€based€and€therefore€are€not€reduced€when€public€pensions€are€obtainedÏbefore€the€statutory€age,€providing€workers€with€an€incentive€to€retire€earlier.€€In€some€systems,Ïpublic€pensions€have€an€earnings€rule€attached€to€them€so€that€any€earnings€above€a€certain€limit€mayÏresult€in€a€substantial€reduction€in€pension€payments€or,€in€effect,€high€effective€marginal€tax€ratesÏon€earned€income,€disadvantaging€anyone€who€works€beyond€the€statutory€retirement€age.€€SuchÏprovisions€may€also€account€for€the€abruptness€of€the€transition€from€work€to€retirement.€€LimitedÏportability€of€many€private€pension€plans€has€an€inhibiting€effect€on€labour€mobility€which€isÏparticularly€acute€for€schemes€organised€at€the€company€level€rather€than€at€the€wider€economicÏsector€level.€€Older€workers€may€also€suffer€other€disadvantages,€including€lack€of€access€to€re„¼training€programmes,€and€difficulties€in€securing€jobs€once€they€become€unemployed€(Grundy,Ï1998).ÌÌà ˆ àIn€ò òless€developed€regionsó ó€the€ability€of€the€older€population€to€be€self„supporting€for€at€leastÐ à  Ðsome€of€their€later€years€is€often€overlooked€and€only€the€governments€of€the€more€economically€andÏdemographically€advanced€countries€have€really€recognised€the€productive€capabilities€of€the€elderlyÏand€begun€to€institute€programmes€to€encourage€continued€economic€activity€albeit€with€mixedÏsuccess.€€In€the€Republic€of€Korea,€for€example,€in€order€to€encourage€retention€of€older€workers€inÏthe€industrial€sector,€the€government€enacted€the€Aged€Employment€Law€in€1991€requiringÏestablishments€with€300€or€more€employees€to€employ€at€least€three€percent€older€workers€(Song,Ï1998)€although€reportedly€some€firms€would€rather€pay€fines€than€conform€to€these€requirementsÏ(Cho€and€Byun,€1998).€€Following€the€enactment€of€this€law,€public€enterprises€increased€theÏmandatory€retirement€age€to€60,€explicitly€attempting€to€employ€more€older€workers,€an€exampleÏwhich€leading€private€enterprises€followed€until€diverted€by€the€financial€and€foreign€exchange€crisesÏof€1997.€€Some€commentators€consider€that€more€decisive€government€measures€are€required€toÏenable€a€greater€proportion€of€healthy€and€active€older€populations€to€continue€working.€ÏEmployment€in€the€form€of€re„training€is€particularly€desirable€since€this€allows€older€workers€toÏtake€up€new€occupations€and€to€cope€with€rapid€technological€change.ÌÌà ˆ àIn€recent€years€Singapore€has€initiated€significant€changes€in€an€attempt€not€only€to€provideÏpositive€opportunities€for€the€elderly€but€also€to€ensure€that€the€paucity€of€young€adults€entering€theÏlabour€market€does€not€have€a€deleterious€effect€on€production.€€Apart€from€the€influx€of€foreignÏworkers,€measures€taken€to€enhance€the€size€of€the€labour€force€include€raising€the€retirement€ageÏfrom€55€to€60€years€of€age€in€1993,€and€progressively€to€62€in€1999€and€to€67€in€2003;€andÏencouraging€women€generally€and€older€people€in€particular€not€currently€in€the€work€force€to€returnÏto€work.€€This€is€consistent€with€the€governmentððs€promotion€of€ððlife„long€employabilityðð€throughÏððlife„long€learningðð€by€which€continued€economic€activity€can€be€achieved€on€the€basis€of€re„trainingÏand€upskilling€throughout€the€population.€€Here,€too,€concern€is€being€expressed€by€employers€overÏthe€rising€cost€of€labour€in€the€context€of€an€ageing€work€force€where€the€seniority„based€system€ofÏremuneration€has€prevailed.€€Adjustments€are€being€made€to€incorporate€such€features€as€a€moreÏflexible€system€of€payment€to€reflect€productivity€and€to€reduce€requirements€for€contributions€toÏthe€Central€Provident€Fund€for€workers€over€60.ÌÐ ,P(+ Ðà ˆ àFocusing€on€the€formal€sector€of€the€more€highly€urbanised€societies€in€the€less€developedÏregions,€especially€in€Asia,€can€be€somewhat€misleading€since€such€observations€suggest€that€issuesÏof€employment€among€older€people€are€being€met€by€official€measures€analogous€to€those€invokedÏby€countries€in€Europe€and€North€America€at€an€earlier€stage€in€the€ageing€process.€€However,€forÏmost€of€Asia,€the€greater€proportion€of€opportunities€to€remain€in€the€labour€force€occur€in€aÏsignificantly€different€form:€they€are€concentrated€in€services€and€agriculture,€and€rather€than€relyingÏon€the€public€sector€or€large€corporations,€older€workers€are€more€likely€to€be€self„employed€orÏactive€in€family€businesses.€€While€official€measures€are€largely€geared€up€to€the€particularÏcircumstances€of€urban€employees,€the€majority€of€the€actually€or€potentially€economically€activeÏare€in€rural€areas,€in€small€family€businesses,€and€in€the€informal€sector€in€both€its€rural€and€urbanÏmanifestations.ÌÌà ˆ àOutside€the€modern€and€predominantly€urban€business€sector€the€concept€of€ððretirementðð€mayÏhave€little€currency€and€family€roles€and€economic€activities€merge.€€For€older€people,€whether€urbanÏor€rural,€contributing€to€the€collective€needs€of€the€family€(as€distinct€from€continuing€to€follow€aÏpersonal€career€or€even€pursuing€individual€employment€outside€the€home)€may€not€give€rise€to€aÏneed€to€differentiate€between€activities€commanding€remuneration€and€fulfilment€of€obligations€andÏduties€in€the€home.€€Childcare€and€housework€(more€especially€for€women),€and€financial€assistanceÏand€consultation€on€family€or€business€matters€within€the€household€may€contribute€just€asÏsignificantly€to€family€well„being€as€participation€in€productive€processes€identifiable€as€ððeconomicÏactivityðð.€€This€also€provides€a€reminder,€as€previously€noted,€that€coresidence€need€not€implyÏdependence€on€the€part€of€older€persons€but€intergenerational€support€flowing€from€parents€toÏchildren€and€grandchildren.€€This€again€raises€issues,€particularly€for€women€but€also€for€all€olderÏpeople,€relating€to€the€definition€of€work,€and€the€value€of€activities€undertaken€without€theÏrecognition€that€remuneration€provides.ÌÌà ˆ àGiven€these€circumstances€it€is€therefore€hardly€surprising€that,€in€the€many€surveys€of€theÏelderly€which€have€been€made€in€Asian€countries€in€recent€years€and€the€range€of€themes€addressed,Ïone€topic€not€included€is€that€of€work€and€retirement.€€Although€many€of€the€surveys€contain€someÏcurrent€information€on€labour€force€participation,€the€closely€related€topics€of€work,€wealth€andÏretirement€as€studied€in€Europe€and€North€America,€have€been€largely€absent€from€most€AsianÏstudies€to€date€(Hermalin,€1997).ÌÌÔ‡ ¼}¨¼X XŒïÔò òHealth€and€Health€Careó óÐ °"ð! ÐÔ#† XŒïX¼ ¼}¨£²#ÔThe€health€characteristics€of€most€people€in€their€sixties€and€seventies€are€broadly€similar€to€the€restÐ Æ# " Ðof€the€adult€population.€€The€stereotype€that€closely€links€ageing€with€infirmity€is€unfounded.€€ThereÏare€enormous€health€variations€within€each€older€age€group€ranging€from€persons€with€virtually€noÏimpairment€to€those€with€severe€disability.€€Being€sick€and€limited€in€life€choices€is€the€antithesisÏof€active€ageing.€€The€fact€that€most€older€people€are€reasonably€healthy€is€a€sound€reason€forÏpursuing€active€ageing€policies€which€proactively€encourage€participation€in€the€widest€possibleÏrange€of€activities€including€employment€and,€as€far€as€possible,€removing€barriers€to€work€andÏlearning€for€people€who€have€reached€some€notional€age€of€retirement.€€Beyond€that,€with€the€largeÏgrowth€in€the€number€of€very€old€people,€dependent€care€for€the€frail€elderly€becomes€a€stage€of€lifeÏthat€warrants€recognition€by€existing€public€policy€makers.Ð 6,v(+ Їà ˆ àAlthough€the€majority€of€older€people€enjoy€good€health,€ageing€is€accompanied€by€biologicalÏchanges€which€increase€the€risks€of€illness,€disability€and€the€probability€of€dying.€€ððHealthÏexpectancyðð€may€be€used€to€describe€disability€free€years€of€life€and€probabilities€determined€on€theÏbasis€of€decrement€tables€derived€using€a€methodology€similar€to€that€of€the€life€table.€€PrevalenceÏof€chronic€illness€rises€with€age€and,€as€one€would€expect€in€ò òlow€fertility€countriesó ó€whereÐ €À Ðdegenerative€diseases€prevail,€comprises€similar€illnesses€or€disabilities€in€such€contrasting€culturesÏas€England€and€Japan:€musculo„skeletal€conditions€and€disorders€of€the€heart€and€circulatory€system.€ÏWhile€chronic€illness€may€not€amount€to€disability€or€frailty€and€have€little€inhibiting€effect€on€theÏactivities€especially€of€the€younger€elderly,€the€prevalence€of€disabilities€is€strongly€age€related€andÏreaches€high€rates€at€more€advanced€ages€(Grundy,€1998).ÌÌà ˆ àDespite€women€having€a€distinctly€longer€life€expectancy€than€men,€in€most€more€developedÏcountries€they€also€spend€longer€in€a€state€of€impaired€health.€€However,€while€there€appears€to€beÏan€increase€in€the€prevalence€of€light€and€moderate€disabilities€as€people€grow€older,€this€isÏaccompanied€by€a€levelling€or€fall€in€the€occurrence€of€severe€disabilities€(Mertens,€1994).€€TheÏincrease€in€life€expectancy€has€to€be€partly€explained€by€a€slowing€in€the€rate€of€progression€ofÏchronic€diseases.€€So,€although€the€decline€in€mortality€leads€to€an€increase€in€the€prevalence€ofÏchronic€diseases€these€diseases€are€generally€milder€in€character€and€the€severity€of€dysfunction€isÏdeclining.€€Nevertheless,€a€recent€analysis€provides€evidence€for€the€United€States€that€in€the€1980sÏincreases€in€life€expectancy€were€concentrated€in€years€spent€without€disability.€€This€stands€inÏremarkable€contrast€to€the€preceding€decade€when€almost€all€of€the€increase€in€life€expectancy€wasÏin€older€years€characterised€by€disability.€€While€this€outcome€was€true€for€both€males€and€females,Ïthe€increases€in€both€life€expectancy€and€life€expectancy€free€of€disability€for€males€have€been€muchÏlarger€than€those€for€females€(Crimmins,€Saito€and€Ingegneri,€1997).€€More€rigorous€evidence€aboutÏthe€linkages€among€mortality,€health,€dysfunction€and€ageing€would€enable€greater€precision€in€theÏassessment€of€the€effects€of€changes€in€epidemiology,€medical€interventions€and€health€policy.ÌÌà ˆ àAgeing€populations€present€a€major€challenge€to€systems€of€health€and€long„term€care.€€In€mostÏsocieties,€despite€the€relatively€good€health€of€many€of€the€elderly,€there€is€a€heavy€concentration€ofÏhealth€problems€and€long„term€care€costs€among€older€people,€particularly€the€very€elderly,€and€inÏsome€more€developed€countries€as€much€as€one€half€of€all€health€care€expenditure€occurs€in€the€lastÏtwo€years€of€life€(OECD,€1997).€€Whereas€personal€health€care€expenditure€increases€onlyÏmoderately€before€the€age€of€60€when€mortality€is€still€relatively€low,€preliminary€estimates€indicateÏthat€per€capita€expenditures€around€age€70€are€twice€the€average,€peaking€to€four€times€higher€forÏthose€aged€80€and€over.€€The€concentration€of€long„term€care€use€among€the€very€elderly€is€evenÏmore€dramatic.ÌÌà ˆ àOther€recent€research€carried€out€in€the€United€States€but€with€an€apparent€wider€applicabilityÏsuggests€that€health€outcomes€at€old€age€are€influenced€by€health€attributes€of€past€and€concurrentÏgenerations€of€relatives.€€In€particular,€parentsðð€age€of€death€and€number€of€surviving€siblings€areÏboth€correlated€with€disease€prevalence€and€ability€to€function.€€Still€to€be€determined€is€whether€thisÏcorrelation€reflects€shared€genetic€endowments,€where€some€families€are€healthier€than€others,€or€theÏcumulative€impact€of€common€social,€economic,€and€geographic€environments€(Smith€and€Kington,Ï1997).€€Other€findings€also€indicate€that€the€greater€inability€of€some€groups€to€function€effectivelyÐ ,P(+ Ðduring€old€age€has€less€to€do€with€ethnicity€per€se€than€the€joint€interaction€of€socio„economic€statusÏand€health.€€Furthermore,€compared€to€men,€women€of€each€ethnic€group€have€more€functionalÏlimitations.€€These€appear€to€reflect€a€relationship€between€parity€and€general€health€among€womenÏover€50€years€of€age;€differences€between€men€and€women€in€how€they€report€symptoms€and€healthÏoutcomes;€and,€given€their€relatively€high€mortality€rates,€a€greater€degree€of€selectivity€amongÏmales€since€only€the€more€robust€survive€to€older€ages.ÌÌà ˆ àIn€the€majority€of€ò òless€developed€countriesó ó€governments€provide€very€limited€health€servicesÐ P  Ðor€medical€care€so€that€the€needs€of€the€lower€and€middle€income€segments€of€the€elderly€populationÏ„€preventive,€curative,€restorative€and€rehabilitative€„€remain€largely€unmet.€€Most€older€people€haveÏto€depend€on€their€limited€savings€or€on€the€support€their€children€can€provide€for€treatment€andÏgeneral€health€care.€€State€supported€public€health€services€are€limited€in€their€coverage€and€areÏmainly€confined€to€urban€areas.€€These€facilities€are€often€overcrowded,€unevenly€distributed€andÏoverstretched€due€to€paucity€of€funding€and€qualified€personnel,€shortage€of€space,€poor€maintenanceÏand€indifferent€services€(Bose,€1996).ÌÌà ˆ àGradual€improvements€in€most€countries€include€separate€access€and€consultation€hours€forÏthe€elderly;€specialisation€in€geriatric€medicine€and€hospital€wards;€mobile€facilities,€and€expandedÏfacilities€for€treatment€of€health€problems,€such€as€cataract,€which€are€a€particular€problem€of€theÏaged.€€The€bulk€of€the€population€in€less€developed€countries€is€not€covered€by€medical€insuranceÏwhich,€in€most€instances,€caters€only€to€the€more€affluent€sections€of€society€and€receives€little€orÏno€support€from€the€state.€€Even€where€available€and€accessible€to€older€people,€medical€insuranceÏgenerally€does€not€cover€preventive€health€measures,€personal€health€care€or€domestic€ancillaryÏsupport€services,€aids€or€appliances.ÌÌà ˆ àThe€Republic€of€Korea€is€one€of€the€few€wealthier€countries€in€less€developed€regions€whereÏthere€is€comprehensive€medical€provision€for€the€whole€population€since€everyone€is€covered€byÏhealth€insurance€or€medical€assistance€programmes.€€As€of€1995,€nearly€97€percent€of€those€aged€65Ïand€over€were€covered€by€health€insurance€and€the€remainder€were€covered€by€medical€assistanceÏ(Chung,€1998).€€As€elsewhere,€health€insurance€coverage€is€more€focused€on€curative€health€careÏrather€than€preventive€care.€€Furthermore,€patients€have€to€pay€20€percent€of€hospitalisation€fees,€andÏan€even€more€substantial€proportion€of€outpatient€fees€so€that€the€outgoings€confronting€the€elderlyÏcan€still€represent€quite€a€financial€burden.€€As€recently€as€1996,€the€limitation€on€the€reimbursableÏtreatment€period€for€the€elderly€was€abandoned€to€the€benefit€of€the€chronically€ill€and€long„careÏpatients.€€In€Singapore,€where€part€of€Central€Provident€Fund€savings€can€be€used€for€medicalÏexpenses,€the€obligations€of€filial€piety€and€the€safety€net€of€medical€insurance€are€combined€in€theÏFundððs€provision€for€parentsðð€hospitalisation€charges€to€be€deducted€from€their€childrenððs€medicalÏsavings€accounts€(Yap,€1998).ÌÌà ˆ àWherever€they€are€provided,€public€health€systems€and€health€insurance€schemes€are€facingÏfunding€problems€partly€because€of€the€escalating€numbers€of€older€people€who€make€more€frequentÏuse€of€health€service€provisions,€but€also€partly€because€the€elderly€are€more€likely€to€requireÏprocedures€based€on€the€use€of€expensive€technology.€€Whether€in€societies€where€the€mainÏresponsibility€for€care€of€the€aged€is€undertaken€by€the€family,€by€the€community€or€by€the€state,€theÐ ,P(+ Ðmajor€costs€relate€to€the€long„term€care€of€the€frail€elderly€and€the€main€issue€is€balancing€individualÏor€private€responsibilities€against€collective€or€public€responsibilities.€€In€many€societies,€notÏconfined€to€more€developed€regions,€long„term€care€has€become€a€normal€risk€in€society€and€itsÏfinancing€requires€some€form€of€collective€risk„pooling€mechanism.€€Such€mechanisms€must€takeÏinto€account€the€major€costs,€such€as€long„term€nursing€care,€as€well€as€the€more€minor€costs€thatÏnow€tend€to€be€covered€in€a€more€comprehensive€way.€€At€present,€most€of€these€risk„poolingÏmechanisms€are€in€the€public€rather€than€in€the€private€sector.ÌÌÔ‡ ¼}¨¼X XŒïÔò òEconomic€Security€and€Income€Supportó óÔ#† XŒïX¼ ¼}¨Ø#ÔÐ @ € ÐAdequate€income€support€at€older€ages€is€a€matter€of€primary€concern€for€those€who€wish€to€ensureÏsome€degree€of€independence;€absence€of€a€sufficient€and€reliable€income€reduces€the€elderly€toÏvarying€degrees€of€dependence.€€The€most€vulnerable€are€those€who€have€no€productive€assets,€littleÏor€no€savings€or€investments,€no€pensions€or€retirement€funds,€and€either€have€no€family€to€care€forÏthem€or€who€are€part€of€families€with€low€or€uncertain€incomes.€€For€the€majority€of€workers€in€lessÏdeveloped€regions€who€are€in€the€unorganised,€small€scale€and€informal€sector€in€urban€areas,€or€inÏagriculture€and€allied€sectors€in€rural€areas,€the€absence€of€pension€schemes,€provident€fund€or€otherÏsuitable€savings€instruments,€the€lack€of€information€and€foresight€with€regard€to€problems€of€olderÏages,€the€irregular€flow€of€income€during€their€working€lives€and€the€constant€pressures€to€meetÏcurrent€needs€guarantee€a€high€degree€of€dependence€on€their€children€(Bose,€1996).€€Those€withoutÏchildren€run€a€severe€risk€of€joining€the€indigent€and€homeless.ÌÌà ˆ àIn€all€but€the€wealthiest€societies€in€less€developed€regions,€the€majority€of€aged€people€do€notÏhave€the€resources€to€support€themselves€and€so€children€are€the€main€means€of€support€by€default.€ÏEven€then,€the€elderly€are€unlikely€to€receive€cash€directly€from€their€children€for€personal€spending.€ÏThis€problem€of€income€security€is€far€more€acute€in€the€case€of€elderly€women€since€even€in€theÏnormal€course€of€events€women€have€limited€control€of€household€resources.€€Women€constitute€aÏsmall€proportion€of€the€labour€force€in€the€organised€sector€and,€therefore,€only€limited€numbers€haveÏthe€benefit€of€an€independent€pension.€€While€some€may€benefit€from€a€husbandððs€pension€on€hisÏretirement€or€after€his€death,€others€lose€their€entitlement€once€their€spouse€is€deceased.€€WomenÏwho€are€unmarried,€widowed€or€divorced€are€particularly€disadvantaged€because€of€their€longerÏexpectation€of€life€and€period€of€widowhood,€and€their€earlier€withdrawal€from€economic€activity,Ïespecially€self„employment.ÌÌà ˆ àIn€countries€in€less€developed€regions,€provident€funds€established€for€the€benefit€of€civilÏservants€and€other€beneficiaries€of€the€(mainly€British)€colonial€system€have,€in€many€instances,Ïevolved€into€more€general€pension€provisions€for€those€in€the€formal€labour€force€and€theseÏprovisions€have€been€complemented€by€private€schemes€accessible€to€the€more€affluent.€€NationalÏprovident€funds€are€employment„based€social€security€systems€providing€primarily€for€urban„¼dwelling€workers€in€the€formal€employment€sector.€€Employers€and€employees€pay€to€the€centralÏgovernment€agency€pre„determined€proportions€of€a€personððs€wage€or€salary€which€are€then€creditedÏto€the€individual.ÌÌà ˆ àNational€provident€funds,€in€one€form€or€another,€constitute€one€of€the€most€popular€forms€ofÏsocial€security.€€They€are€popular€with€their€members€who€identify€with€their€ððdepositsðð,€and€withÐ 6,v(+ Ðsponsoring€governments€which€perceive€them€as€self„help€vehicles€for€the€provision€of€basicÏretirement€income€protection€while€at€the€same€time€mobilising€substantial€domestic€savings€for€low„¼cost€public€use€(Dixon,€1995).€€However,€because€the€funds€are€employment€related€and€focus€onÏwage€and€salary€earners€in€the€formal€sector,€those€who€have€never€undertaken€economic€activityÏas€officially€defined,€who€have€worked€in€the€informal€sector,€or€comprise€part€of€the€very€large€andÏmainly€self„employed€work€force€in€rural€activities€such€as€agriculture,€are€unlikely€to€beÏbeneficiaries€of€such€a€system.€€Even€beneficiaries€are€unlikely€to€find€their€old€age€payments€fromÏthe€provident€funds€adequate€to€support€them€at€anything€like€the€level€of€lifestyle€to€which€theyÏhave€been€accustomed.€€Furthermore,€broadening€of€the€basic€functions€of€the€provident€funds€toÏinclude€funding€for€housing,€healthcare€and€even,€in€the€case€of€Singapore,€investment€in€theÏstockmarket,€has€diluted€the€superannuitant€function€of€the€funds.ÌÌà ˆ àExamples€of€the€national€provision€of€pensions€and€of€the€alternative€ways€of€supplementingÏthem€or€substituting€for€them€where€they€are€lacking€are€diverse€and€varied.€€In€Malaysia,€despiteÏthe€provisions€of€the€official€provident€fund€for€those€who€were€contributing€employees€in€the€labourÏforce,€there€is€broad€evidence€for€the€enduring€importance€of€the€provision€of€old€age€securityÏthrough€the€family,€particularly€for€widows€who€are€elderly€and€in€ill€health,€and€there€is€evenÏstronger€evidence€in€favour€of€the€concept€of€adult€children€repaying€their€parents.€€Transfers€fromÏparents€to€children€serve€primarily€to€finance€the€childrenððs€education,€and€adult€childrenððs€transfersÏto€elderly€parents€are€a€strongly€increasing€function€of€the€childððs€education.€€In€sharp€contrast€to€aÏsociety€like€that€of€the€United€States,€where€employer€provided€pensions,€health€insurance,€publicÏsocial€security€and€Medicare€have€replaced€the€family,€the€dominant€direction€of€monetary€transfersÏbetween€non„coresident€parents€and€their€children€is€from€the€younger€to€the€older€generationÏ(Lillard€and€Willis,€1997).€€Family€financing€of€investment€in€the€younger€generationððs€humanÏcapital€has€played€a€significant€role€in€facilitating€Malaysiaððs€rapid€economic€growth,€but€nationalÏeconomic€development€has€not€reduced€either€the€obligation€or€the€need€for€children€to€continue€toÏreciprocate€with€monetary€transfers€to€their€parents€as€they€reach€older€ages€(Leete,€1996).ÌÌà ˆ àThe€Korean€government€has€put€considerable€effort€into€developing€welfare€policies€for€theÏelderly€including€livelihood€protection,€although€overall,€less€than€five€percent€of€the€Ministry€ofÏHealth€and€Welfare€expenditure€in€1997€was€devoted€to€the€elderly.€€The€old€age€allowanceÏcomprised€nearly€two„thirds€of€government€expenditure€on€programmes€for€older€people,€with€aÏfurther€quarter€devoted€to€institutional€care€of€the€aged€(Chung,€1998).€€Even€in€the€more€wealthyÏAsian€societies€such€as€Korea,€Hong€Kong€and€Singapore,€the€widespread€expectation€of€familyÏsupport€of€the€aged€is€still€passively,€and€sometimes€quite€actively,€encouraged.€€For€example,€inÏ1995,€Singapore€introduced€the€Maintenance€of€Parents€Act€which€provides€for€parents€to€sueÏneglectful€children€for€financial€support€(Yap,€1998).ÌÌà ˆ àIn€other€countries€in€more€developed€regions€government€transfer€payments€and€personalÏsavings€are€the€major€pillars€of€income€maintenance,€and€in€contrast€to€many€societies€in€lessÏdeveloped€regions,€relatively€little€support€comes€directly€from€children.€€Expenditure€on€pensionsÏhas€become€a€very€significant€proportion€of€government€expenditure€(and€consequently€of€GDP)€inÏmost€countries.€€Many€rely€heavily€on€pay„as„you„go€schemes€which€operate€effectively€in€theÏcontext€of€an€expanding€labour€force€that€is€producing€a€favourable€balance€between€contributorsÐ ,P(+ Ðand€recipients.€€However,€as€populations€age,€the€labour€force€stabilises€in€size€or€even€shrinks,€andÏthe€ratio€between€the€economically€active€and€pensioners€deteriorates€„€a€trend€accentuated€by€theÏtendency€to€early€retirement€until€very€recently€in€countries€such€as€the€United€States.€€Increases€inÏpension€expenditures€have€been€more€affected€by€changes€in€beneficiary€ratios€than€by€demographicÏageing€alone,€a€consequence€of€early€labour€market€exit€for€a€range€of€reasons€alluded€to€earlier.€ÏGovernment€reactions€tend€to€be€mixed€as€specific€provision€for€the€recognised€need€of€the€olderÏpopulation€is€traded€off€against€such€issues€as€youthful€unemployment€and€provisions€for€other€typesÏof€beneficiary€payments€to€adults€of€all€ages.ÌÌà ˆ àIn€Japan,€the€average€income€level€of€the€elderly€is€reported€to€be€similar€to€other€householdsÏ(Atoh,€1998),€but€differentials€among€elderly€households€are€larger€than€for€the€remainder€of€theÏpopulation€in€terms€of€the€value€of€income,€savings€and€ownership€of€real€estate.€€Consequently,Ïpublic€pensions€are€extremely€important€for€those€older€persons€with€small€incomes€and€assets.€ÏPublic€pension€schemes€have€been€provided€for€everyone€since€1991,€and€in€1994€benefits€comprisedÏ55€percent€of€the€average€annual€income€of€elderly€households.€€However,€maintenance€of€this€levelÏof€support€is€becoming€increasingly€problematic€as€estimates€indicate€that€by€2025€contributions€perÏworker€would€have€to€rise€from€the€present€17.4€percent€to€34€percent€of€wages€and€salaries.€ÏModifications€which€will€ease€this€and€other€heavy€demands€on€the€social€security€system€are€likelyÏto€be€introduced€at€the€time€of€the€next€scheduled€review€of€public€pensions€in€1999.ÌÌà ˆ àIn€most€low€fertility€societies€the€real€problem€with€maintaining€old„age€pensions€at€or€aboveÏsubsistence€level€is€not€the€ratio€of€the€working„age€population€to€the€elderly€but€the€reluctance€ofÏmodern€populations€to€expend€resources€on€the€old€rather€than€on€the€young€(Caldwell,€Caldwell€andÏMcDonald,€1998).€€The€notion€of€the€old€as€dependents€has€largely€been€superseded€at€the€familyÏlevel€and€increasingly€there€are€intergenerational€resentments€when€substantial€increases€occur€inÏgovernment€expenditure€on€the€aged.€€The€obvious€option,€to€cut€the€real€value€of€pensions,€isÏbecoming€progressively€more€difficult€as€the€older€population€become€an€ever€larger€proportion€ofÏthe€electorate.€€Such€a€measure€is€becoming€an€increasingly€difficult€option€as€many€older€personsÏwho€stand€to€benefit€from€pay„as„you„go€systems€consider€that,€having€paid€their€taxes€asÏemployees,€they€have€earned€the€right€to€receive€pension€payments€as€retirees.€€In€the€United€States,Ïððgrey€powerðð€has€effectively€influenced€increased€government€spending€on€the€old.€€This€trend€canÏbe€made€more€palatable€to€the€electorate€at€large€by€creating€the€illusion€that€the€elderly€areÏsupporting€themselves,€an€outcome€which€can€be€contrived,€as€in€the€United€States,€by€separatingÏnormal€taxation€from€social€security€payments€and€steeply€increasing€only€the€latter€(Caldwell,ÏCaldwell€and€McDonald,€1998).€€Alternatively,€individuals€and€their€employers€may€be€required€toÏcontribute€to€private€pension€or€superannuation€schemes€effectively€as€a€form€of€tax,€and€others€suchÏas€the€self„employed€may€voluntarily€contribute€to€such€plans.€€The€issue€which€then€arises,Ïparticularly€in€the€case€of€government€funds,€is€making€the€appropriate€investments€with€the€hugeÏsums€involved.ÌÌÔ‡ ¼}¨¼X XŒïÔò òWomen€and€Povertyó óÐ @)€%( ÐÔ#† XŒïX¼ ¼}¨ž#ÔFor€many€of€the€elderly,€particularly€in€less€developed€regions,€the€greatest€issue€is€poverty.€€TheÐ V*–&) Ðissue€is€more€acute€for€women,€not€only€because€of€their€progressive€predominance€numerically€withÏage,€but€also€because€women€are€disadvantaged€in€the€predominantly€patriarchal€societies€in€whichÐ 6,v(+ Ðmost€of€them€live.€€It€is€when€they€become€old€that€the€consequences€of€gender€roles€(men€asÏððbreadwinnersðð,€women€as€ððhousekeepersðð€even€in€instances€where€they€have€been€economicallyÏactive)€is€explicitly€revealed.€€In€situations€where€pension€schemes€accrue€mainly€to€employees,Ïwomen€who€have€not€worked€for€most€of€their€adult€lives€become€even€more€heavily€reliant€on€theirÏhusbandsðð€status€and€pensions.€€The€large€numbers€of€women€who€are€single,€widowed€or€divorcedÏare€especially€vulnerable,€receiving€few€or€none€of€the€entitlements€of€men€and€in€some€instancesÏeven€lacking€comparable€status€in€the€community€and€the€family.ÌÌà ˆ àThe€proportions€of€married€older€people€owning€their€own€houses€can€be€quite€high€butÏownership€among€women€living€alone€tends€to€be€much€lower.€€Women€living€alone€include€thoseÏwho€may€once€have€owned€their€homes€with€their€husbands,€but€whose€customs€of€inheritanceÏdictate€partial€or€total€forfeiture€to€children,€or€sale€of€the€home€to€share€out€the€inheritance€or€toÏcover€imposition€of€death€duties.€€Even€in€circumstances€where€the€elderly€continue€to€own€their€ownÏhomes,€shrinking€incomes€and€deteriorating€lifestyles€may€make€maintenance€of€the€housing€stockÏimpossible€and€the€seeking€of€more€appropriate€alternatives€impractical€„€a€state€of€affairs€which€isÏlikely€to€be€more€acute€for€women€than€for€men.ÌÌà ˆ àThe€status€of€women€currently€unmarried€may€also€be€different€from€that€of€those€with€theÏhusband€present,€and€even€in€family€situations€where€the€senior€woman€has€authority€and€respect,Ïtheir€position€within€the€family€is€no€guarantee€of€freedom€from€poverty.€€Approved€gender€roles,Ïstatus€in€old€age€and€limited€opportunities€during€their€lifetimes€for€asset€formation,€make€womenÏmore€vulnerable€than€men€in€the€same€society€and€more€likely€to€be€at€the€mercy€of€their€familiesÏwhich€may€themselves€be€poorly€resourced.Ô‡ ¼}¨¼X XŒïÔÐ `  ÐÔ#† XŒïX¼ ¼}¨ß #ÔÌà ˆ àProvision€of€basic€needs€is€an€issue€affecting€many€older€persons€but€particularly€the€largerÏnumber€of€women€at€advanced€ages.€€Housing€especially€constitutes€a€problem€which€has€moreÏserious€connotations€for€the€elderly€than€for€most€other€groups,€especially€in€the€urban€areas€of€lessÏdeveloped€regions.€€Difficulties€range€from€homelessness,€to€absence€of€adequate€maintenance€ofÏhousing€stock€and€inappropriateness€of€design€for€those€who€are€frail€or€partly€immobilised.€€In€moreÏaffluent€societies,€debate€focuses€more€specifically€on€the€desirability€of€institutionalisation€ofÏparticular€categories€of€the€needy€aged,€and€of€the€respective€merits€of€retirement€homes€for€theÏelderly€and€staged€retirement€villages€which€offer€owner€occupiers€a€range€of€lifestyle€facilities€andÏprogressively€more€comprehensive€services€to€cater€for€the€escalating€needs€of€residents€as€they€age.ÌÌà ˆ àThe€particular€issues€facing€women€run€the€gamut€of€problems€confronting€all€older€persons.€ÏAs€noted€earlier,€deterioration€in€health€may€be€a€feature€of€advancing€age€and€since€some€types€ofÏdegenerative€disease€are€strongly€associated€with€age,€incidence€among€women€is€inevitably€high.€ÏDementia€is€an€example€of€one€such€illness,€and€osteoporosis,€to€which€women€are€particularlyÏprone,€is€an€example€of€a€sex„linked€disorder€which€develops€its€most€debilitating€symptoms€at€olderÏages.€€Similarly,€problems€of€loneliness,€isolation€and€abandonment€tend€to€be€more€acute€forÏwomen,€as€increasingly€frail€survivors€of€shrinking€cohorts€gradually€withdraw€even€from€activeÏfamily€roles.€€The€acuity€of€these€difficulties€is€accentuated€during€their€advanced€years€by€theÏconstrained€resources€available€to€most€women€in€their€own€right,€because€of€the€often€limited€timeÏspent€in€the€formal€labour€force€or€in€the€acquisition€of€assets€independent€of€spouses€or€families.Ð ,P(+ Їà ˆ àThe€involvement€of€women€with€the€ageing€process€is€not€confined€to€their€own€old€age€butÏoften€includes€responsibilities€as€caregivers€for€their€elderly€parents€even€in€societies€whereÏcoresidence€is€declining€in€practice.€€Not€only€is€a€much€greater€share€of€aged€care€shouldered€byÏwomen€but€many€women€who€have€been€economically€active€reduce€their€work€participation€or€quitÏaltogether€in€order€to€undertake€such€obligations.€€With€increased€life€expectancy€worldwide,€theÏelderly€who€are€frail€and€in€need€of€long„term€care€are€likely€to€be€drawing€family€support€fromÏwomen€who€themselves€are€already€in€middle€to€early€old€age.€€The€longer€term€impact€on€themÏderives€from€loss€of€income€and€the€consequent€curtailment€of€the€period€of€asset€formation,€andÏaccumulated€stress€and€deterioration€in€their€own€health.€€Since€most€of€this€support€is€providedÏwithin€the€family€or€through€voluntary€community€agencies,€the€impacts€on€the€caregiving€womenÏfor€their€own€prospective€health€and€well„being€in€old€age€are€largely€negative.ÌÌÔ‡ ¼}¨¼X XŒïÔò òPolicy€and€Programme€Implicationsó óÔ#† XŒïX¼ ¼}¨É#ÔÐ @  ÐA€number€of€the€more€affluent€countries€in€less€developed€regions,€particularly€in€Asia,€haveÏrecognised€from€a€relatively€early€stage€the€symptoms€of€incipient€ageing€in€their€own€societies,€andÏhave€responded€by€initiating€research,€conferences€and€consultation.€€Already€the€major€declines€inÏfertility€and€mortality€have€had€a€marked€effect€on€the€age€structure€of€these€populations,€withÏsignificant€implications€for€full€employment€and€the€provision€of€services€such€as€education€andÏhealth.€€These€increasingly€widespread€demographic€trends€have€occurred€in€the€context€of€rapidlyÏchanging€economic€and€social€parameters€which€tend€to€exacerbate€rather€than€ameliorate€the€impactÏof€the€continuing€population€transition.ÌÌà ˆ àThe€experience€to€date€of€countries€in€the€more€developed€regions,€as€briefly€touched€upon€inÏthis€paper,€has€been€salutary.€€Most€other€countries€are€at€pains€to€avoid€emulating€that€example,Ïparticularly€in€terms€of€the€high€cost€and€difficulties€of€effective€delivery€of€official€social€welfareÏprogrammes€for€older€populations.€€There€are€marked€differences€in€the€national€experiences€of€theÏprocess€of€population€maturation€which€can€be€ascribed€to€contrasts€in€cultural€and€social€mores,€inÏlevels€of€economic€development,€in€the€degree€of€government€involvement,€but€above€all€to€theÏspeed€with€which€fertility€decline€is€already€ageing€the€populations€of€many€of€the€worldððs€mostÏpopulous€nations.€€Approaches€are€therefore€being€sought€which€will€accommodate€such€differencesÏand€deliver€the€requisite€services€at€much€lower€cost,€perhaps€by€melding€modified€versions€ofÏestablished€support€systems,€improved€infrastructures€and€modest€publicly€funded€programmesÏ(Hermalin,€1997).ÌÌà ˆ àAs€the€proportion€of€the€population€in€older€age€groups€increases€the€factors€of€developmentÏhave,€in€most€respects,€consorted€to€compromise€the€status€and€viability€of€the€aged.€€TechnologicalÏand€other€changes€trap€them€in€traditional€and€less€rewarding€jobs,€impede€access€to€more€desirableÏalternatives,€necessitate€early€retirement€from€preferred€careers€or€even€withdrawal€from€the€labourÏforce€altogether.€€Social€change,€economic€success€and€increased€mobility€among€the€youngerÏcohorts€who€have€benefited€from€opportunities€unavailable€to€their€parents,€tend€to€distance€olderÏpeople€from€their€families€and€deprive€them€of€meaningful€familial€roles.€€It€is€therefore€inevitableÏthat€the€social,€economic€and€health€needs€of€vulnerable€older€persons€should€emerge€as€priorityÏconsiderations€for€analysts€and€policy€makers€(Hermalin,€1997).ÌÐ 6,v(+ Ðà ˆ àAlthough€the€majority€of€countries€in€less€developed€regions€are€already€showing€clear€signsÏof€ageing€populations€and€this€process€is€proceeding€at€a€speed€greater€than€that€experienced€in€moreÏdeveloped€regions,€there€is€generally€sufficient€lead€time€before€the€emergence€of€the€projected€andÏgreatly€enlarged€proportions€of€older€persons€for€policy€and€decision€makers€to€adopt€a€nuancedÏapproach€in€the€development€of€appropriate€policies€and€programmes.€€While€the€changingÏòòproportionsóó€concentrated€in€older€ages€reflect€the€shifting€age€and€gender€balance€withinÐ p° Ðpopulations,€with€major€implications€for€substantial€adjustments€in€the€resource€base€(especially€forÏany€effective€fiscal€measures),€it€is€the€huge€òònumbersóó€of€older€individuals€with€which€governments,Ð P  Ðagencies,€communities€and€families€will€have€to€deal€that€must€command€attention.ÌÌà ˆ àWith€the€large€number€of€surveys€and€research€projects€already€completed€or€underway,Ïparticularly€in€Asia,€the€structural€features€of€the€aged€component€in€society,€and€the€circumstancesÏand€needs€of€older€people€in€these€societies€have€become€increasingly€apparent€and€will€continue€toÏdo€so€as€concerned€funding€agencies€and€research€institutions€persevere€with€investment€of€resourcesÏin€these€investigations.€€However,€while€the€process€of€change€in€the€òòformóó€of€social,€economic€andÐ à  Ðdemographic€structures€these€older€people€are€experiencing€in€their€societies€is€beingÏcomprehensively€analysed€and€better€understood,€the€underlying€òòrationaleóó€for€these€adaptations€andÐ À Ðpeopleððs€perceptions€of€what€needs€to€be€done€in€response€is€less€well€understood.ÌÌà ˆ àThe€fact€of€declining€coresidence€in€many€societies€is€well€known,€but€is€the€motivationÏpositive€on€the€part€of€both€the€elderly€and€the€family,€is€the€goal€greater€privacy€and€independenceÏfor€either€or€both,€are€the€objectives€whatever€they€are€being€achieved€to€the€satisfaction€of€all,€someÏor€none?€€Earlier€withdrawal€from€the€labour€force€is€a€recurrent€phenomenon,€but€in€their€ownÏparticular€societal€contexts,€is€this€expressing€a€real€preference€for€opportunities€other€thanÏemployment€for€the€older€worker,€a€strategic€response€to€government€policy€and€programmes€as€theÏsimplest€way€of€achieving€a€particular€lifestyle,€a€calculated€preference€for€recreation€and€leisureÏrather€than€work,€or€simply€an€outcome€by€default€rather€than€by€choice?€€Identifying€the€underlyingÏmotivation€for€exercising€choice€in€achieving€change€is€equally€appropriate,€not€only€for€coresidenceÏand€economic€activity€but€for€most€areas€of€human€activity€relating€to€the€ageing€phenomenon€whereÏsuch€issues€as€poor€health,€disability€or€frailty€are€not€the€determinants€of€behaviour.ÌÌà ˆ àIn€attempting€to€develop€new€policies€and€programmes€the€real€needs€and€preferences€of€olderÏpeople€need€to€be€determined€and€both€the€direct€and€indirect€consequences€of€their€implementationÏ(including€the€side€effects€of€unrelated€policies)€evaluated.€€For€such€policies€and€programmes€to€beÏeffective,€adoption€of€an€holistic€approach€will€ensure€that€in€dealing€with€one€particular€issue€theÏbroader€needs€of€the€elderly€and€of€the€wider€society€are€recognised,€that€the€influence€of€earlier€lifeÏexperiences€of€the€currently€aged€are€acknowledged,€and€that€the€prospects€for€meeting€the€needs€ofÏfuture€older€cohorts€are€not€compromised.ÌÌÐ  P($' ÐÓ€ÓÓ  ÓÔ‡ ¼}¨¼X XŒïÔò ò3€à@..à€€€€UNFPA€PARTICIPATION€IN€POLICIES€AND€PROGRAMMESó óÔ#† XŒïX¼ ¼}¨U/#ÔÐ À ÐÓ€ÓÓ  ÓÌÌIt€is€primarily€this€forward€looking€perspective€that€the€UNFPA€has€adopted€in€supporting€activitiesÏin€the€general€field€of€population€ageing.€€The€strategic€focus€of€the€Fundððs€approach€has€emphasisedÏdata€collection€and€analysis,€especially€for€gender€issues,€and€related€research.€€Emphasis€has€beenÏplaced€on€policy€formulation€and€planning,€together€with€the€creation€of€awareness€of€the€distinctiveÏcharacteristics€of€societies€and€older€persons€themselves€in€countries€where€ageing€is€emerging€asÏan€issue.€€Such€activities€have€included€training€and€other€support€for€the€implementation€andÏevaluation€of€action€programmes€including€specific€policy€interventions€by€governments€and€NGOs.ÌÌà ˆ àIn€the€post€ICPD€period€there€has€been€a€shift€in€emphasis€to€more€closely€align€the€strategicÏobjectives€of€the€Fund€with€those€of€the€Programme€of€Action.€€Advocacy€is€being€emphasised€inÏorder€to€draw€the€attention€of€policy€makers€to€the€social€and€economic€issues€associated€withÏageing,€to€promote€coordination€of€programmes€and€to€mobilise€resources.€€Technical€assistance€isÏbeing€offered€to€assist€in€policy€development,€to€help€strengthen€national€institutional€capacity€forÏintegrated€approaches€to€ageing€and€to€emphasise€the€special€needs€of€women.€€Training€is€aimedÏat€achieving€effective€data€collection€and€application€in€order€to€optimise€efficient€policy€formationÏby€researchers€and€policy€makers.€The€Fund€is€also€supporting€research€on€populations€at€risk,€onÏachieving€healthy€life€expectancy€and€on€the€personal€and€family€circumstances€of€older€persons.ÌÌà ˆ àThe€following€sections€summarise,€first,€the€ICPD€Programme€of€Action€itself,€and€then€threeÏmain€areas€which€encompass€many€of€the€main€activities€of€the€Fund€in€promoting€theÏimplementation€of€the€Programme€of€Action.€While€not€actively€involved€in€the€implementation€ofÏaction€programmes€in€the€field€of€ageing,€UNFPA€orients€its€assistance€to€support€activities€aimedÏat€discovering€suitable€solutions.€ÌÌÐ  Á ÐÑ€*|®ÑÑ€O[EÑÑ€:|®Ñ߉€%!?O?;~|T) p€ €€€@E°ÀTÌ)ttlø'Ü(Tðèøä\+‰ßâ °±°±°(#°(#â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±â°â °±°±°±°±âÐ ,P(+°±°± ÐÑ€`³/ÑÔ*wƒÜddd Xdd Xdd X°(#°(#wÔÔ,£ZZ@ÔÔ+  ÔÐ /% À €€‚‚ƒƒ„C„‹‹/ÐÔ‡ ôÝ9ôX XŒïÔÓ µÿÓÓ! ë'ÃØØ!ÓÌÔ#† XŒïXô ôÝ9“>#Ôò òÓ  ÓÔ‡  $! X XŒïÔÓ5‡?ˆÈ5ÓUNFPA€IMPLEMENTATION€OF€THE€ICPDÐ ¹ù ÐPROGRAMME€OF€ACTIONÔ#† XŒïX  $!?#ÔÔ‡ „FÒ„X XŒïÔÐ Z ÐÓ?ÓÌÔ#† XŒïX„ „FÒÓ?#ÔÔ‡  $! X XŒïÔÓ  ÓRole€of€the€UNFPAÐ  D ÐÔ#† XŒïX  $!;@#ÔÓZ@ÓÔ‡ „FÒ„X XŒïÔÌÔ#† XŒïX„ „FÒ¿@#ÔÔ‡ ¼}¨¼X XŒïÔI€€€€Mandate€and€Guidelines€for€UNFPA€Approach€to€Population€AgeingÐ î . ÐÌÔ#† XŒïX¼ ¼}¨A#ÔRationaleó óÐ \œ  ÐÔUS.,UK.,áÔÝ‚[GÀÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚[GÀØAÝ€€ð"ðà0 à àÝ  ÝÔ#†XŒïXX XŒï7#ÔÔ‡ XŒïXXXŒïÔpopulation€ageing€is€a€major€challenge€in€developing€countries€already€advanced€inÐ m­  Ðthe€demographic€transition݃[GÀØAóA݌РÃ%"Ã%" ÐŒÝ  Ýà0 ' àÝ‚[GÀÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚[GÀ-CÝ€€ð"ðà0Ã'%"'%"àÝ  ÝÔ#†XŒïXX XŒïFB#ÔÔ‡ XŒïXXXŒïÔthe€process€will€be€much€more€rapid€in€less€developed€countries€than€in€developedÐ n®  Ðcountries݃[GÀ-CHC݌РÃ%"Ã%" ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚[GÀÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚[GÀlDÝ€€ð"ðà0 à àÝ  ÝÔ#†XŒïXX XŒï£C#ÔÔ‡ XŒïXXXŒïÔdeveloping€countries€have€fewer€institutional€and€economic€resources€to€respond€toÐ o¯ Ðbasic€needs€of€the€elderly݃